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ThePrii i-acyo/ Personality 
in Pedagogy 



J. W. Jent, Th. D. 






The Primacy 0/ Personality 
in Pedagogy 



Copyright by 

John "VMlliam Jent, Th. D. 
1914. 



MAI -8 1914 



The Primacy 0/ Personality 
in Pedagogy 

by 
John William Jent, Th. D. 



A Thesis 

Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School 

of 

Yale University 

In Candidacy for the degree of 

Master of Arts 

(Department of Education) 



Lancaster, Texas 
1914 



^x^^'^ 

\^\i 



©CI.A3T44 5a 
'Ho , 



Inscribed 

to the memory of 

My Mother 

Whose personaUty was 

an 

EXEMPLIFICATION 

of the ideas and ideals 

which permeate 

these pages. 



Preface 



<D 



HE History of Education is a record of the progressive 
transition from mechanical memory drill to the stimulation 
of individual initiative. The primacy of psychology and. the 
potency of practice in modern pedagogy demonstrates the 
determinism of the educational subject in the educative 
process. 

The purpose of this treatise is to prove that the basis of this de- 
terminism is the sovereignty of the SELF; that is, personality is primal 
In pedagogy. 

This becomes evident as the development of individualism is 
traced in history. Such a survey shows that the phenomena known 
as PROGRESS is the function of persons. Since education consti- 
tutes the warp into which the woof of civilization is woven/'PER- 
SONALITY must be regarded as the weaver plying the shuttle in the 
loom of life and projecting the pattern that is preserved in the social 
fabric. ' - 

' Personality is, therefore, the key which unlocks the art as well 
as the science of education. A clear conception of its nature and 
relation to the various phases of the educative process is the back- 
ground against which one may throw modem pedagogy and thereby 
discover its defects and those reforms which shall bring the splendid 
superstructure to its culmination in a perfect system of education. 
How well we have succeeded in proving this proposition and realizing 
this ideal, the following pages will serve to show, 'i 

The desire to produce a work that would be PRACTICAL as well 
as technical and thereby not only meet the University condition but 
render real service in the educational world explains the popular 
treatment of the topic. While a two -fold purpose inevitably results 
in a compromise, it is hoped that the discussion at least approximates 
the "happy medium." 

The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness first of all 
to his teacher- friends — Frederick Eby of Baylor University, who 
grounded him in the fundamentals of Psychology and madei it the 
most fascinating of all the sciences; B. H. DeMent of The Southern 
Baptist Theological Seminary, who introduced him to and encouraged 
him to enter the field of Religious Education for extended research 
and special training; E. H. Sneath of Yale University, whose incisive 
teaching and vigorous thought induced him to work out the system 
of philosophy which permeates this Thesis; Charles F. Kent of Yale 
University, under whose skilled direction the details of Religious Edu- 
cation were wrought out and rounded into the system with which 
the last chapter is saturated; C. B. Williams of The Southwestern 
Baptist Theological Seminary, under whom The Pedadogy of Jesus 
was deduced and proven prinnal in Education; H. C. Mabie, Philosopher 
and Theologian, whose lectures and conversations suggested the Pri- 

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macy of Personality in Pedagogy; and E. C. Moore of the Department 
of Education in Yale University, whose courses in the History and 
Principles of Education inspired the author to undertake this task 
and under whose direction the work has been done. 

I am also under lasting obligation to Professors G. A. Coe, H. H, 
Home and J. W. Buckham for the personal interest manifested in 
valuable suggestions and wise counsel in the collection of books on 
the subject. Their own works have proven invaluable. I regard 
Buckham's "Personality and the Christian Ideal" as the most notable 
contribution yet made to the literature on Personality. He has prac- 
tically said the final word on this vital subject. 

In addition to the works of Coe, Home and Buckham, all those 
in the Bibliography with the title in Capitals were very helpful, es- 
pecially — "Thistleton Mark's "Unfolding of Personality;" Randall's 
"Culture of Personality;" Illingworth's "Personality — Human and Dl- 
Tine;" and James' "Varieties of Religious Experience." 

JOHN WILLIAM JENT. 
First Baptist Church, Lancaster, Texas, 1914. 



(8) 



THE PRIMACY OF PERSONALITY IN PEDAGOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Potency of Persons. 

^^^^^HE pivots about which the movements of history have turned 
£ ^^ are PERSONS. The life of the nations is inseparably linked 
I J with such names as Tiglath Pilesar, David, Alexander the 

^^^^^ Great, Pompey, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Attila the Hun, 
^^"^ Charlemagne, Alfred the Great, Oliver Cromwell, George 
Washington, Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln. 

Apart from the personalities of Mirabeau, Marat, Danton and Rob- 
espierre, the French Revolution would be a meaningless riddle; as 
would the reform movement in England during the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury without the personality of the Earl of Shaftsbury; or our own 
Civil War without the influence of Charles Summer, Wendell Phillips, 
William Lloyd Garrison, Harriet Beecher Stowe and Abraham Lincoln. 
The Declaration of Independence by the American Colonies and the 
birth of the United States, in which it culminated, are but the ripened 
fruit of the thought and emotion which crystalized in the convictions 
of Patrick Henry, Benjamin Franklin and their fellow patriots whose 
sensitive souls were saturated with the spirit of freedom. 

The various reformations which have wrought the progressive re- 
adjustment of society when shattered by the shock of new ideas and 
ideals, inherent in the variations of social evolution, are but the 
social transmutation of the reformers around whom they revolved. 
Witness the influence of Luther in the Protestant Reformation of 
Germany; of Savonarola in the renovation of Florence; of Garibaldi 
in the liberation of Italy; of Frances E. Willard in the awakening of 
American womanhood to its right and duty in the preservation of 
the American home; and of William Jennings Bryan in the Renais- 
sance of Civic Righteousness in the United States. Whether the 
transformation of China be regarded as a revolution or a reformation 
— and it partakes of the nature of both — the explanation is to be 
found in the powerful personality of Sun Yat Sen. 

Racial characteristics, natural environment and the spirit of the 
age are inevitably reflected by literature, but its style and strength 
are inherent attributes of the personalities which produce it. The 
pages of a book are charged with power to thrill the heart or mould 
the mind because they are the incarnation of the author. The classics 
are immortal because they are saturated with such matchless spirits 
as Sophocles, Dante, Shakespeare, Goethe, Milton, Homer and Virgil. 
Their breadth of vision, depth of insight and symmetry of character 
permeate every page. It is not strange that they live. They glow 
with the essence of immortality — the soul of the author. 

Books that never grow old are the treasures to which one may turn 

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when "the light of aspiration shines but dimly, and hope has well 
nigh died, and the fires of the heart are burning low." That so much 
current literature is ephemeral is due to its artificiality. It is body 
without soul because its circulation carries the froth of a morbid or 
sensational sentiment instead of the rich red blood of personality. Such 
books are buried because they are lifeless forms, dead and decaying, 
indeed in many instances they are worse than dead because death 
dealing as moral poison. 

Whatever its form — real art is merely the concrete instance in 
which some splendid personality has found full and rich expression. 
Such masters as Phidias, Michael Angelo, Raphael, Mendelsohn and 
Bethoven have attained universal distinction because of their power to 
transmute themselves to the phases of form or color or tone assumed 
in their productions.! 'The art that lives on and on and never dies, 
"forever interpreting to man the uninterpretable and expressing for 
him the inexpressible" is not the art that is flawless in technic but 
the art that throbs and pulsates with the meaning and significance of 
the spirit which conceived It. ' ' 

Science is not, like art, essentially expressive but it is none the 
less the product of personality. It is not an accident that the com- 
mon chemical and physical laws such as Boyle's Law (the volume of 
gas varies according to the pressure) ; Dulong and Petit (the atomic 
weight of an element multiplied by its specific heat is a constant which 
has a value of about 6. 5) ; Ohm's Law (the relation between the 
electromotive force and the current) ; Pascal's Law (the pressure 
throughout the mass of a liquid at rest is everywhere the same) and 
the Principle of Archimedes (A body immersed in a fluid is buoyed 
up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it), is 
designated by the name of the discoverer. As the product of abstract 
reason — these laws are grounded in intelligence; and of constructive 
imagination — they are the expression of individual initiative — that is, 
they are vitally related to persons. The capacity to observe, to ex- 
periment and generalize is an attribute of personality and since it is 
the essential condition to scientific achievement, personality is potent 
in science. This contention is sustained by the very term SCIENCE, 
from the Latin "SCIENTIA"— KNOWLEDGE. 

The potency of persons in the evolution of philosophy is clearly 
evident in the terminology by which the various systems are desig- 
nated. They are denominated the VIEW or PHILOSOPHY of such 
and such a person, as, for example, the Philosophy of Socrates or of 
Spinoza or Kant. The very history of Philosophy is merely an elab- 
orate but specialized series of biography. The whole is divided by 
Hegel (himself a great philosopher) into Oriental Philosophy, Greek 
Philosophy, Philosophy of the Middle Ages, and Modern Philosophy. 
Greek Philosophy is set forth as the thought systems or VIEWS of 
Thales, Pythagoras, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, Protagoras, Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle, and other thinkers of less note. The Philosophy of 
the Middle Ages is rather barren, but what there is clusters about 
such names as Anslem, Abelard, John Duns Scotus, Roscelinus, and 
Roger Bacon. Modern Philosophy is rich in the PERSONALITIES 
of which it is the product. Such names as Descartes. Spinoza, Locke, 
Hobbes, Newton, Leibnitz. Hume, Kant, Fichte, Lotze, Eucken, and 
Paulsen tell the story of the evolution of thought in modern times. 

The term "philosophy" designates the function of a person. It is 
brought over from the Greek "PHILOSOPHIA," meaning "The love 
of, inducing the search after, WISDOM." As a concept it designates 
"The knowledge of phenomena as explained by, and resolved into, 
causes and reasons, powers and laws." 

Since that phase of philosophy known as PSYCHOLOGY is the 

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science which functions in PEDADOGY, education must be the effect 
of which personal potency is the cause. The introspective capacity 
of self- consciousness and the generalizing propensity of self-de- 
termination are essential presuppositions in the science of Psychology 
and the art of Pedagogy. This conclusion is confirmed by the prom- 
inence of such names as James, Judd, Angel, Dewey and Royce in 
Psychology and the power of such personalities as Herbart, Pestalozzi, 
Froebel, Bagley, Thorndyke and Baldwin in Pedagogy. 

Thus it is that all the abstract concepts which constitute the 
framework of the social organism or the paths which civilization is 
blazing through the wilderness of human effort came to the con- 
sciousness of mankind as the subjective reaction of a sovereign self 
upon an objective world. Present day Philosophy, Psychology and 
Pedagogy are the cumulative thought of centuries, preserved and 
propagated by the process of social heredity. 

The vital! relation of religion to philosophy would lead one to 
expect both phenomena to be grounded in the same potency. History 
justifies the expectation. Even the spontaneous religions depend 
upon the potency of some person or persons for their vitality. Wit- 
ness Confucianism and Judaism. While the former is a philosophy 
rather than a religion it persists because Confucius organized it and 
made it workable. The latter, though more a religion than a phil- 
osophy, is what it is and did what it has done because, Moses so 
codified it that the Hebrews could utilize it. 

The great religions of the world are FOUNDED religions, that 
is, religious having for their ultimate truth an historical person, spec- 
ulatively constructed. Of these — there are three — Mohammedanism, 
Buddhism and Christianity. Persisting personality is the vital prin- 
ciple in each. It is not what Mohammed, Buddha, and Jesus taught 
that gives coherency and guarantees continuity to the system of faith 
but what they, themselves, are to their disciples. Creeds cannot 
command the devotion of disciples. A Personal DEITY alone makes 
possible the phenomena of WORSHIP. The institutions of religion are 
local but the IDEA, the ultimate truth, inherent in the person of the 
founder— this is VITAL, hence, UNIVERSAL and eternal. 

The comprehensive term by which man's "THEOS- LOGOS," 
(knowledge OF or thought ABOUT God) is designated is THEOLOGY. 
The various phases it has assumed are but so many views of individual 
persons. The doctrines of the Bible are divinely inspired, yet none the 
less the thoughts of men. It is fitting and proper to designate them 
as the doctrines of men such as Paul, Peter, Amos, Moses, and Isaiah. 
Systematic Theology is a growth or an accumulation of the speculative 
thought of the centuries. Such terms as Calvinism and Arminianism 
are applied to whole systems of theology because they were first 
thought out by individual men. 

This all pervasive potency of persons in the phenomena of human 
life demonstrates the self- sovereignty and supremacy of some vital 
factor inherent in the human individual. To ascertain the nature, 
source and sphere of this factor is to largely master the mystery of 
being and gain the goal of existence. To test this deduction by a 
two -fold application is the task of the next two chapters. 



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n 



CHAPTER II. 

The Evolution of Individualism. 

UMAN history is the record of human development — the 
foot- prints of progress through the forest of the centuries. 
The view- point from which it may be intelligently surveyed 
is the vital force or formative factor in which its movement 
and unity is grounded. 

Primitive society was superlatively simple because it was saturated 
with solidarity. The savages who composed it were grouped in small 
communities, with no coherency except the blood tie. Experience was 
meagre and the process of abstraction was unknown, hence, the people 
were slaves of natural needs and supernatural fears. 

The elementary division of social functions marks the birth of 
barbarism. Emancipation from nature was thereby effected, but the 
freedom thus attained was purchased at the expense of servitude to 
the Institutions which guaranteed it. So slavery and solidarity per- 
sisted as essential elements of the social system. 

The mastery of institutions constitutes the bridge which spans 
the chasm between barbarism and civilization. The constructive 
genius which gave this boon to mankind was Hellenic or Aryan- 
Greek. That this distinction belongs to the Greeks is no accident. 
Both their history and their habitat were conducive to this achieve- 
ment. In the dim days of antiquity they migrated from the original 
home of the Aryans, somewhere in western Asia, and settled in the 
mountainous region between the plateau of southern Russia and the 
plain of Thessaly. Here the passing of the centuries wrought in 
them the development of that courage and fine physique which after- 
wards made them so famous. 

The Thessalian plain south of them was occupied by the tower 
building Turanians, later known as Pelasgians (Philistines) or Tyrr- 
henians (Etrurians). About the dawn of history, these Pelasgians 
were conquered and driven into the mountains by a number of tribes 
closely related to the Phoenicians and Hebrews — Semites — which in 
time federated into an empire, under the rule of the Pelopids, in the 
days of the last of whom — Agamemnon — took place the great struggle 
called the Trojan War, which greatly enfeebled the nation. Seizing 
this opportunity, the Aryan Hellenes, in three tribes — Aeolians, 
Dorians, and lonians — swept down from the mountains and conquered 
the Semite Confederation. This eventful conquest marks the real 
beginning of Greek history, about 1100-1000 B. C. 

Amalgamation was the inevitable consequence of such a situation. 
Though conquered by the Aryan Hellenes, the Semites were still in 
the land, as were also the ancient Turanians and the rugged con- 
querors had to live with them. Some three hundred years, forming 
a sort of "Dark Age," were consumed in the blending of the racial 

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elements. The result was an Aryan people, which had, in a large 
degree adopted and modified an older Semetic civilization, itself 
containing certain elements of a still older Turanean culture, yet 
retaining a distinct social and political superiority and imposing their 
language on the whole people. 

Centuries of seclusion sayed the Hellenes from a military despot- 
ism on the one hand, and an age-long migration, from the tyranny 
of a priesthood on the other, hence, when they subjugated the Semites 
they had developed that spirit of independence which enabled them 
to successfuly resist the domination of classes and institutions. This 
capacity to think for themselves and the courage which nerved them 
to do it is the elemental essence of freedom and constitutes the be- 
ginning of civic life. 

The real pioneer in the process of reflective thought, at least the 
first independent thinker in all the world to give his deduction con- 
crete expression in a definite doctrine, was PROTAGORAS, who 
aflBrmed that "Man is the measure of all things," and thereby es- 
tablished the validity of the individual by the annihilation of the 
gods and theology on the one hand and nature and science on the 
other. ' 

The result was revolutionary. Stability seemed to have evap- 
orated. If it existed at all, it must be found where hitherto least 
expected — in man himself. Here, indeed, it was found and the man 
who immortalized himself by the discovery was SOCRATES. He 
dem.onstrated by his dialectic method that while all sensation, as 
such, is subjective and individual, its ultimate essence is objective 
and universal, that is, virtually the same in all men. Thus he vin- 
dicated the claim of the individual to absolute validity and at the 
same time harmonized it with the demands of the social life. 

The substance of this discovery was PERSONALITY and moral 
freedom. It constitutes one of the most momentous epochs in human 
history. Its moment is its potency. Thought is essentially primal 
in life. Consciousness is the channel through which the impact of 
the objective world MUST pass if it culminate in conduct. Con- 
versely, that which comes to consciousness MUST culminate in con- 
duct, because expression is the automatic consummation of impression. 

The EXERCISE of freedom was, therefore, the source of the 
concept which came to consciousness and crystallized in the thought 
of Socrates. Having thus matured, it at once began to function in 
the institutions and ideals which constitute the vitality, and the 
refinements which constitute the inflorescence of Greek life. Here 
we have the inspiration of Greek Philosophy; the source of those 
impulses which found expression in the Greek language and Greek 
Literature; the essence of that genius for abstraction and constructive 
imagination which functioned in Greek art. In a word, the realization 
of real freedom, as the function of personality, was the achievement 
of the Greeks and at the same time the secret of their history. It 
was, therefore, both a cause and an effect, and as such, constitutes 
their contribution to the stream of human culture. 

The relation of Rome to Greece is that of the SHOP to the 
STUDIO. The Romans were ORGANIZERS rather than ORIGINA- 
TORS. Their mission seems to have been the discovery of the means 
by which Greek culture and Hebrew Religion might be utilized in the 
promotion of human welfare. What they did was to borrow and 
broaden They borrowed the Greek idea of a confederate govern- 
ment and developed it into a universal empire; they borrowed the 
Greek idea of law, as evolved in the processes of art, and developed 
it into a system of legal principles which persist to this day in the 

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complex code of all nations; they adopted the religion of a despised 
sect and made it universal. 

In these and other less important respects the Romans demon- 
strated their genius in elaborating the institutional organization 
necessary to make effective the aspirations of other people. 

The Greeks found that freedom IS and WHAT it is by the devel- 
opment of personality and the Romans devised the means of its 
utility, but the body politic of both people was infected with festering 
sores because their conception of personality was sadly defective. 
Its compass was narrow. What makes a man free and for what he 
is free, that is the ground and goal of personality, they never knew. 
The seminal principle of true progress must be found in a proper 
sense of the inherent dignity of manhood; in the realization of the 
truth that the whole human race is endowed with the inalienable 
rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness — that is, the right 
of SELF-REALIZATION. 

This is the grand doctrine of Human Brotherhood and is the 
achievement of the Jew. While the Greek regarded all races except 
his own as "barbarians," and the Roman considered all who did not 
belong to his own state as "hostes," or enemies, Jesus, the fairest 
flower of the Hebrew Race, indeed, of the Human Race, proclaimed 
the BROTHERHOOD of all nations by revealing God as their com- 
mon Father; by His commission to preach the Gospel to "every 
creature;" by His receiving the woman of Samaria and her of 
Caanan as graciously as any others; by His making Himself the 
friend of publicans and sinners; by the tone of such parables as 
"Dives and Lazarus;" by His equal sympathy with the slave, the 
beggar and the ruling class; and by the whole bearing and spirit of 
His life. 

When Jesus proclaimed that "the Sabbath was made for man," He 
enunciated HUMAN WELFARE as the END of human freedom. 
When He enacted His "Royal Law" (James 2:8) "Thou shalt love 
thy neighbor as thyself," with its "Golden Rule" complement: "All 
things whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even 
so unto them (Matt. 7:13)," and exemplified it in His life and death, 
He injected into the circulation of society that ethical serum which is 
at once the anti- toxin of selfishness and the nutrition of sacrificial 
service. In other words. He perfected the Greek and Roman con- 
ception of personality. 

Individualism is, therefore, a blend of Greek culture, Roman Law, 
and Hebrew Religion. The Greeks discovered personality, the Ro- 
mans clothed it with power, and Jesus crowned it with the dignity 
of a basis and a mission. Truly "Man is the measure of all things," 
the ground of unity — the potent factor in human progress. 

The pace of progress for many centuries after Christ was ex- 
ceedingly slow because the Greek and Roman conception that SOME 
are free and the Christian conception that ALL are free are essen- 
tially antagonistic. The ascendency of the former, in the domination 
of the Classes, was maintained for a thousand years. Self-con- 
sciousness in the masses was slow because self-determination was 
difficult. Realization of the inherent right and duty of the human 
being to live his own life, to think his own unhampered thought, to 
come to his own honest conclusion, and to speak it out freely and 
fearlessly is effected by the exercise of that right. 

Under the old regime this was practically impossible. The king 
demanded that all other men should work for him and fight for him 
and the priest demanded that they should think and believe as he 
dictated. The masses were compelled to submit to this civil and 
roJigious despotism for centuries because they were disorganized and 

(14) 



powerfess to assert themselves if they had been so disposed. To 
criticise the king was to commit treason and thereby toy with death; 
and to dispute the priest was to become a heretic and thereby in- 
vite the horrors of the dungeon or the stake. 

The possibility of relief came in the two-fold exercise of individ- 
ual initiative— DISCOVERY and INVENTION. Gunpowder put power 
into the hands of the common people and enabled them to defy the 
king. Printing, especially the open Bible, so enlightened the masses 
that the interdict of the priest no longer had any terror for them. 
Men now began to really think their own thoughts and live their own 
lives apart from the priest or the king. The Feudal System of Chiv- 
alry fell to pieces and the whole social superstructure began to 
crumble. Science refused to keep silence any longer. Copernicus, 
with his telescope turned to the heavens, taught men that the earth 
on which we live is, after all, but a bit of dust in the midst of a 
universe so vast that it cannot be described. Columbus ploughed 
his puny barque through the waters of the Atlantic and by the dis- 
covery of a new continent convinced the people of Europe that they 
lived on a narrow parish in the midst of a great Planet. 

The exercise of this new power and the impact of these new 
ideas seemed at first to belittle man and threatened to destroy religion. 
Indeed, it did destroy the primitive forms of religion which were 
founded on the Ptolemaic conception of the universe, but the ultimate 
culmination was the conviction that a living, thinking, loving human 
being is really greater than the whole material universe. The Chris - 
tion conception of personality had finally found its way into con- 
sciousness and now began its real work of transforming society. 

The first result was the German Reformation, under the leader- 
ship of Martin Luther. When this sturdy monk defied the ecclesias- 
tical authorities of Rome by refusing to believe the things they had 
decreed and claiming for himself and for every other man the right 
to interpret the Bible according to the dictates of the individual con- 
science, the stagnation of centuries received a shock that reverberated 
around the world. 

The flames of reformation kindled the fires of Revolution. It 
flared up first in Holland .then in England, later in America, and 
finally in France. The whole civilized world was shaken to its very 
foundation by the sense of freedom. The culmination was reached 
in the Declaration of Independence by the American Colonies, July 4, 
1776. This was the first grand assertion of the dignity of the human 
race and marks the dawn of the day in which mankind seems destined 
to attain the glory of self-realization. 

We live in the high noon of this day. It is pre-eminently a day 
of DEMOCRACY. The right of the people to rule is being more and 
more realized and recognized. The individual has at last emerged 
from the mass and takes his place in the social order as a human 
unit, endowed by the Creator with inalienable rights. Everybody is 
becoming SOMEBODY and everybody has rights that everybody else 
must respect. 

The political complexion of the whole wide world is being 
changed. Despotism and tyranny, once borne with impunity, are no 
longer tolerated anywhere. One by one, absolute monarchs have been 
compelled to submit to the inevitable in the grant of constitutional 
government. Freedom flourishes and liberty lives in every land. In 
England it is the Lords yielding the supremacy to the Commons; 
in Russia it is the Duma smashing the Bureaucracy; in the Balkan 
Peninsula it is the Allies burying the remains of the sick man of 
Europe; in Portugal it is the people retiring a puny potentate; in 
Italy it is Liberalism in the lead; In China it is the downfall of the 

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Manchus and the birth of a Republic; in the United States it is the 
renaissance of civic righteousness rolling across the plains and 
prairies and through the cities, sweeping greed and graft before it. 
The whole world seems stirred by a new force which shakes and 
shatters institutions hoary with age and deeply rooted in the pride 
and selfishness of human nature. 

Time honored conservatism seems powerless to stay the tide of 
INSURGENCY. The "Party Lash" has lost its terror. The "Ward 
Boss" and "Lobby Leech," henchmen of special interests, have been 
put out of the civic synagogue. The custodians of a free ballot refuse 
to be any longer herded like sheep or driven like cattle. The primacy 
of character has come to stay. Ballots are no longer cast for a party 
name, but for MEN, who are held amenable to the electorate for 
what they ARE as indicated by what they do. 

The widespread adoption of the "Commission" form of municipal 
government; the growing popularity of the "short ballot," the initia- 
tive, referendum and recall, are only so many symptoms of the 
deepening determination of the individual citizen to safeguard his 
rights by so concentrating responsibility that public servants shall be 
superlatively sensitive to public sentiment and hence impelled to 
keep their hands on the pulse of the people, in the projection of 
public policy. A PROGRESSIVE, about whom so much has been said 
recently, is merely a man who sets himself to see to it that repre- 
sentative government shall really be REPRESENTATIVE. He is 
dominated by the conviction that he knows his own needs better 
than any other man knows them. He is tired of being governed by 
a plutocracy of special interests and has decided to try his hand at 
SELF-GOVERNMENT. 

The complement of self- sovereignty in politics is the competency 
of the soul in religion. Liberty of conscience is utterly incompatible 
with a state church. It is not strange that the Twentieth Century 
has largely marked the passing of the prelate and the practical 
paralysis of the Papacy. Men are no longer satisfied with the sham 
of priestly mediation. They are mastered by the conviction that they 
not only have the right but are under obligation to confess their sins 
to God Himself. Ritualism is being simplified everywhere. Congre- 
gationalism is slowly but surely supplanting Episcopacy. Men are 
having their say as individuals in the church as they are in politics. 
Nothing demonstrates the ultimate doom of ecclesiasticism more 
surely than the "Laymen's Movement." A great religious leader of 
the South said recently, in a meeting of his denomination, "laymen 
have practically assumed the leadership of the churches." If this 
be true, and that it is will hardly be denied, Democracy has actually 
demolished the last vestige of ecclesiastical despotism in this coun- 
try. The clergy is no longer a CLASS. The minister has actually 
become a MAN, endowed with the rights of, and void of the power 
other than that, inherent in manhood. 

The final phase of personal freedom, being wrought out in our 
own day, is the enfranchisement of women. The story of woman's 
struggle for recognition in the exercise of her inborn rights as a 
human person, is full of pathos for her and disgrace for man. In 
some religions it was taught that woman had no soul, that she was 
not a person, merely a thing; and among those whose religion had a 
more worthy conception, men treated her as if the conception were 
true. "She has been made man's slave, his toy, his drudge — every- 
thing but what she is — his mate and equal. He has hunted her and 
captured her, bought and sold her, denied her the privileges of higher 
education, refused her the right to have a voice in making the laws 
under which she must live, in determining her own status in society 

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or In creating opportunities for herself." While the cause is being 
hindered rather than helped by the militant suffragists of Great Brit- 
ain and America, it is nevertheless steadily marching on. State after 
state of our Union is, by legal enactment, recognizing woman as a 
person, hence, a free being, endowed by the Creator with the right 
of self-government. Laws do not create rights, they only recognize 
and guarantee them. If woman be regarded as responsible, and our 
criminal code so regards her, she must also be regarded as FREE 
Men are more and more coming to see the justice of this view and, 
hence, placing the ballot in the hand of the fairer sex as an inherent 
right, grounded in the dignity of the human person, and an attribute 
of womanhood as it is of manhood. 

This, then, is man in the morning of the Twentieth Century. 
Having emerged from the mass of mankind, he stands upon his own 
resources, self-conscious and self- determining, that is FREE. Aris- 
tocracy is annihilated. Titles have become empty forms — "A man's a 
man for 'a that," and MANHOOD has come to its own. 

The path from the tyranny and despotism of the past which has 
led mankind hither was blazed by the individual initiative of those 
brave men and women who faced death heroically rather than utter 
the lie of recantation. But for the fact that in every period of his- 
tory there have been men and women who dared think for themselves, 
who denied the right of any institution or class or individual to dic- 
tate what they should believe and what they should do, we would 
still be savages. The insurgency of such souls saved mankind from 
a static society and made progress possible. We are where we are 
and what we are in the upward movement of humanity because there 
has never been a time when there were not souls brave enough and 
big enough to initiate something new and then maintain it. Many of 
them suffered martyrdom. Modem science, modern theology, modern 
civilization, yea twentieth century freedom, is saturated with the blood 
of the splendid spirits through the channel of those personalities the 
stream has coursed its way from age to age. 

The evolution of individualism is near its culmination. The 
victory is largely on the side of humanity. "The hands on the dial 
of history can never be turned back." We have won for ever the 
right to live our own lives, to think our own thoughts, and to come 
to our own conclusions. And yet the future is pregnant with prob- 
lems which throw their shadows across the glory of our civilization. 
Our peril is a warped individualism which shall abuse the privilege of 
freedom and oppress mankind in the name of personal liberty. The 
perpetuity of our civilization, much more its perfection, depends upon 
the recognition of the rights of OTHERS. 

The guarantee of this safeguard is the complement of Democracy 
in the compass of Individualism — HUMANITARIANISM. We shall be 
saved from the supremacy of selfishness by the humane spirit which 
saturates our civilization. It functions in an ever growing fraternity, 
fraught with a proper appreciation of the dignity and sanctity of 
human life. This is the feeling that finds expression in the manifold 
mercies and compassion more and more permeating society. 

HUMAN SLAVERY — the sin of the centuries— IS GONE FOR- 
EVER. The Gospel of Human Brotherhood first served to mitigate 
the horrors of the slave's life. This, in turn, gave place to the con- 
viction that the practice itself is inherently evil. It was abolished 
in Great Britain in the year 1808. In the same year the United States 
put an end to the traffic between this and other countries. In 1833 
Great Britain stopped the evil in her colonies, and in 1863, as the 
fruit of a horrible war, the United States wiped out the last vestige 
of the curse. Other nations have one by one followed in the foot- 

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steps of the Anglo-Saxon, and today the man -owner is outlawed in 
every land. 

War is fast following the curse of slavery. Men are everywhere 
coming to regard it as wholesale murder and as such a crime against 
humanity. The Hague Conferences and the International Court of 
Arbitration; the agitation for disarmament; the universal assent to 
certain humane practices in time of war; the fraternal co-operation 
of the nations in treaty compacts which tend to prevent war and to 
stop it when it does arise; the increasing readiness of the nations 
to co-operate in intervention, are all omens which herald the ap- 
proach of that glad day towards which the faces of mankind eagerly 
turn — the golden age of which the prophets preached and the poets 
sang — when men shall "Beat their swords into plough- shares and 
their spears into pruning hooks." 

The spirit of brotherhood is finding expression in a thousand 
mercies extended suffering and sorrowing humanity. Witness the 
better housing of the poor; the protection of women and children 
against the selfishness of society, by legal enactment; the dedication 
of the best efforts of science to the prevention of disease and the 
decrease of accidental deaths; efforts to exterminate such social 
parasitism as "White Slavery," the liquor traffic, vagrancy and 
pauperism; prison reform and that control of corporations which 
makes monopolies impossible and guarantees the just distribution of 
wealth. All these and countless other humanities are the effects 
of which the humane spirit permeating our civilization must be re- 
garded as the cause. 

Just as humanitarianism is the culmination of individualism, AL- 
TRUISM is the consummation of humanitarianism. For centuries 
mien have been ready to fight for their OWN rights, but the day has 
at last dawned when some, at least, are ready to fight for the rights 
of others. This was exemplified in the Spanish -American War, when 
the United States took up arms in behalf of down-trodden Cuba. It 
was this same spirit which impelled our government to champion 
the cause of China and save that ancient empire from dismemberment 
by the European Powers. 

The final and finest expression of this spirit is Christian Missions. 
The modern phase of this movement, mainly initiated by Cary in 
England and Judson in America, though ridiculed and regarded as 
visionary at first, has gathered such momentum in recent years that 
it constitutes one of the most vital elements in modern life. No man 
can be regarded as really informed who is ignorant of its place and 
power in the evolution of society. 

The day of little things in missions is about done, too. The 
laymen's movement has turned the minds of busy business men to 
the significance of missions in the conservation and propagation of 
human welfare. Missions is no longer regarded as the cant of the 
clergy but the core of commerce, the current of culture, the chief 
concern of statesmen as well as religious leaders. The brightest and 
best in the land are laying themselves on the altar. Whereas men 
were once satisfied with the contribution of a mere pittance, they are 
now pouring out their treasure by thousands and tens of thousands. 
The evangelization of the world, even in this generation, is no longer 
a vain hope but a vital expectation. 

The cosmopolitanism and philanthropy of missions demonstrates 
the altruism and humanitarianism of its motive. It must be regarded 
as the effect of which a consciousness of the inherent dignity and 
worth of men as men is the cause. 

Missions measures men not by what they ARE but by what they 

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may become— that is, PERSONALITY is the factor which functions 
IN and constitutes the finished product of the movement. 

If, as we have seen, civilization was born in the consciousness of 
personal freedom and those variations which constitute the stepping 
stones of progress, are the cumulative effects of which this conscious- 
ness is the cause, both the unity and movement of history must be 
grounded in this factor. It is clear, therefore, that the EVOLVER of 
civilization is PERSONAL INITIATIVE and that evolved is person- 
ality, incarnate in DEMOCRACY and HUMANITARIAN! SM— that is 
Civilization is EVOLVED INDIVIDUALISM, hence, history proves 
that personality is and reveals WHAT it is. 



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CHAPTER III. 

The Progress of Pedagogy. 

DUCATION may be broadly defined as "Conscious Evolu- 
tion." That is — the educator is a conscious evolver who 
consciously evokes the evolution of consciousness and 
thereby preserves the social variations in which freedom 
functions. Hence, education is the conservator of Indi- 
vidualism. 

A brief survey of the principles and methods of education, from 
the dim days of antiquity to the present, will amply sustain this 
hypothesis and serve to show that the ever increasing consciousness 
of self- sovereignty is the ground of unity and movement in the 
process and progress of pedagogy. 

Primitive society reveals education in its simplest form. It was 
void of those elements which constitute the complex framework of 
culture. The means elaborated for the assistance of the individual 
in his reaction upon environment were brought to bear upon him, 
for the most part, unconsciously. No system of schools existed. No 
body of knowledge or subjects of study that serve indirectly as a 
basis for conduct of life had yet been organized. 

The aim was the adjustment of the individual to his material and 
immaterial environment through established or fixed ways of doing 
things. There was no attempt at explanation or interpretation other 
than the indication of the thing to be done and how to do it. The 
method was purely unconscious imtitation. 

The pedagogical purpose of the Chinese, throughout the millen- 
niums of their history, has been to train each individual in the "path 
of duty" which heaven has conferred, wherein is most minutely 
prescribed every detail of the occupations and relationships of life. 
These have not, until very recently, and even now in only a limited 
degree, varied for centuries. The "path of duty" is the maintenance 
of that which exists, without change or modification. 

The method is direct and exact imitation — a dry drill in rote 
memory. In learning to read, for instance, the pupil, each one of 
whom has his book, repeats the words after the master, with his 
eyes fixed on the page, following the words with his fore- finger. Only 
one line is read, and this is repeated by the pupil over and over until 
every symbol can be pronounced without the aid of the master. This 
they do, each one shouting out his task, until he has ground it into 
his memory. When he is ready he goes to the master, puts his book 
on the table before him, "backs the book," and repeats the lesson. 
Then the teacher takes up the next line and treats it in the same 
way. Thus, line by line, the whole book is memorized. The pupil 
is regarded simply as a sack into which the "stuff" to be learned is 
poured. 

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Egyptian education was purely the culture of classes. Facts con- 
cerning the methods are meagre, but that dictation was largely re- 
sorted to may be inferred from the school copies in the British and 
French Museums. The difficulties of teaching must have been great, 
and, as we know, the discipline was severe. There seems to be little 
doubt that it was not uncommon for a pupil to be unmercifully beaten 
by his teacher. Personality was ignored; individual initative was 
stinted by the mechanical imitation which permeated the teaching 
process. 

Practical sagacity and profound religious awe were curiously com- 
bined in the Egyptian character, but the people did not know even 
the first principles of metaphysical analysis, which is indispensable 
to the development of philosophical and religious truths as the foun- 
tain head of ethics and morality. Their religion was void of an 
Idealizing principle and their morality was only perceptive. Even 
their history is bare registration. Authority and antiquity governed 
the thought of each succeeding generation. This gave stability and 
continuity to the kingdom, but it was gained at the expense of true 
intellectual progress. 

All the arts of life that minister to comfort and luxury attained 
a high degree of perfection among the Babylonians. Architecture was 
conceived and executed with a vastness of imagination, and their 
fortifications showed great engineering skill. All this implies a highly 
developed technical instruction. Tablets have been found in Babylon 
on which school exercises are written. Where learning and teaching 
existed there must have been teachers and pedagogical principles, but 
there is no information as to their nature. The close similarity be- 
tween the languages and professions of Babylon and Egypt justifies 
the inference that the educational methods of the two countries were 
alike. 

The Babylonian love for magnificent architecture, sculpture and 
decoration was even exceeded by Ninevah. Their technical and mil- 
itary education was evidently highly developed, but even this was 
restricted to the priesthood, the royal court and the Scribes. It was 
evidently Babylonian in character. 

The buildings, harbors, ships and art of the Phoenicians evidence 
the initiative of genius and high efficiency in technical instruction. 
Greece is indebted to them for the alphabet and many oriental elements 
in her art and mythology. Their influence on the Hebrews, with whom 
they were closely allied by political marriage and treaty compact, 
was even more marked. Solomon imbibed his impulse, if not indeed 
his skill, in architecture from them. It is a matter of record that 
the temple at Jerusalem was built by Phonecian artists and workmen. 
They founded Carthage, the proud rival of Rome; indeed they, with 
the Greeks, are the Yankees of antiquity. They may have borrowed 
from Egypt and Assyria, but they vastly improved what they borrowed. 

Brahmanism is the key to Hindu education. The members of 
this cast always received the highest education India afforded. To 
become a thoroughly equipped Brahman necessitated the memorizing 
of all the sacred books. In addition to this voluminous array of 
memory matter, the Brahmanic colleges taught all the astronomy 
and mathematics known and frequently carried their pupils into 
the elaborate linguistic treatise of Panin, hence, we must recognize 
in the substance of the highest Hindu education a fully adequate 
course of liberal study, embracing as it did, theology, philosophy, 
language and science, while including the whole of the national liter- 
ature as that gradually took shape. 

While memorizing the sacred writings was the chief object of 
Brahmanical instruction, the minds of the young Brahmans were, in 

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addition, brought into contact with philosophical systems and the 
general literature of the country. Such a course of study was dis- 
ciplinary, but it was not popular. While the soldiers and even the 
industrial classes shared in it to a limited degree, the lower classes 
were shut out entirely and doomed to menial service, with no learning 
whatever. 

The burden imposed upon the memory by the predominance of 
tradition would be intolerable to the Western mind. The rote drill 
began at the first. The boy learned the alphabet by heart and some 
ten or twenty pages of Sanskrit before he could understand a word. 
Afterwards some explanations were given, but the main object was 
to learn the sacred books by heart accurately, not from the printed 
page but from the lips of the teacher. 

GREEK EDUCATION is commonly divided into the OLD and the 
NEW, with the Periclean age or the middle of the fifth century B. C. 
as the dividing point. 

The Old Greek Education of the historic period was preceded by 
the primitive education of the Homeric times, the character and con- 
tent of which is reflected in the verses of the great poet. It was an 
education that consisted essentially in a training in definite practical 
activities, with no place for instruction of a literary character. The 
two -fold ideal seems to have been a man, an ideal man, of wisdom 
and of action; the former being personified in Odesseus and the 
latter in Achilles. 

The character of the Old Education was determined by the 
domination of the city state as a social institution. It reached its 
highest development in the education system of Sparta. The aim 
here was to give each individual such physical perfection, courage 
and habits of complete obedience to the laws that he would make the 
ideal soldier, in whom the individual was swallowed up by the citizen. 

The despotic socialism of Sparta had no place in the Athenian 
system. The state did not impose its abstract conception of life 
on the citizen, it was rather the; citizen, in his free activity, who 
voluntarily gave his life to the state. The individual, however, had 
no ultimate rights, as against the state. Hence, even in Athens, the 
morality of the individual was civic or political. 

This Old Greek Education was mainly imitative in method, but 
unlike the Oriental imitation of a fixed form or dead custom, it was 
an imitation of a living model, possessed of a strong personality and, 
hence, stimulating to the development and expression of individuality. 
Whatever direct inculcation there may have been was confined to the 
exemplification of these virtues in the life of the teacher. It was 
not, therefore, a formal, lifeless process, but a living type, full of 
activity and pleasure, of expression in concrete form of virtue made 
real through the conduct of the inspirer. 

Still we are not to forget that ROTE MEMORY predominated in 
the learning process. In learning to read, for instance, the teacher 
pointed to a letter and named it and the boy named it after him. 
He recited poetry to the boy, who repeated it after him, line by 
line, until the whole was memorized. The entire process was telling 
on the one hand and learning by heart on the other. 

The culmination of this old Greek Education was attained about 
the middle of the fifth century B. C. This was the Golden Age of 
Greek civilization. In politics — such men as Themistocles and Pericles 
controlled the state. Art reached its zenith in the works of Phidias 
and Myron and the construction of the Parthenon. Heroditus and 
Thucydides laid the foundation of the science of history. The tragic 
drama reached its perfection in the classics of Sophocles and 

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Euripides. In every aspect of human thought and activity there was 
a similar endeavor at creation with which previous achievement can- 
not be compared. The conception of personal freedom had come to 
consciousness and was working itself out in every phase of life. 

The Old Education laid the foundation for these achievements, 
but it was insuflBcient to meet the demands they imposed upon the 
people and altogether inadequate for future needs. Enlarged oppor- 
tunities for personal achievement created the necessity for an educa- 
tion in which th chief emphasis would be laid upon individual devel- 
opment rather than upon service to the city state. 

This situation gave rise to the Sophists. Under the powerful 
leadership of Protagoras, as we have seen in the Evolution of Indi- 
vidualism, they swept the very foundation from beneath society with 
their doctrine of subjective relativity. The educational theorists 
(Socrates, Plato and Aristotle) seized the pedagogical and philos- 
ophical pendulum and drew it back to the balance of virtue grounded 
in individuality rather than citizenship, yet in harmony with the 
necessities of social life 

Socrates was the first teacher in all the world to recognize the 
self- sovereignty of the person to be educated. Postulating the funda- 
mental principle that "Knowledge is virtue" — he matched it with the 
dialectical method designed not to give off-hand information as the 
Sophists had done, but to develop within the individual the power 
of thought. The influence of this conception on education was two- 
fold. It gave dignity to knowledge, as the content of education, 
hitherto unknown, and substituted the stimulation of the individual 
to self-expression for the mechanical methods of the Sophists. 

The Pedagogy of Plato is expounded in his "Republic." He mod- 
ified the philosophy of Socrates, but adapted his educational prin- 
ciples and methods. Since Socrates wrote nothing and Plato has 
preserved the details of his system in the "Republic," it seems well 
to pause to note the defects of their splendid pedagogy. 

In the formulation of principles they adhere to the new conception 
of personal freedom, but when they apply their principles they become 
involved in gross contradictions and inconsistencies. For instance, 
the aristocracy of the Republic negatives the very doctrine of per- 
sonal freedom which functioned in the dialectical method of teaching. 
The pronounced Socialism, as reflected in the proposition to give the 
state absolute control of the whole life of man, shows a lack of 
appreciation of the achievements of that life of free democracy that 
miade possible the very works of both Socrates and Plato. The abject 
provincialism of those ideal states, as well as the narrow life pre- 
scribed for the citizens thereof, is contrary to the dawning conviction 
as well as the growing tendency in Greek life that led to the formation 
of cosmopolitan society, broad in its sympathies and great in its 
intellectual achievements. In his views on slavery, child exposure, 
the status of the industrial class and the general structure of society, 
there is no advance beyond the degrading views and practices of the 
early Greeks. 

The method of Aristotle was objective and scientific, as compared 
with the philosophical and introspective method of Plato. He sought 
truth through the direct vision of reason, and utilized the consciousness 
of man only as a confirmation. Plato, on the other hand, sought truth 
primarily in the objective facts of nature or social life, and in the soul 
of man, the confirmation of which is to be found in the consciousness 
of the race. Aristotle — in whose brain was born the inductive process 
— brought it to a state of perfection which has never been surpassed, 
hence he must be regarded as the real father of modern science, 

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despite the fact that it slumbered for so many centuries after he 
brought it to being. 

There were no artificialities in Roman education. The whole 
process was actual. The boy learned to do what a citizen must do 
by participation in the practices of citizenship. While this method 
may not have been due to the consciousness of personality so much 
as to accident, yet it was an advanced recognition of self -sovereignty 
and is due doubtless to the utilizing genius which characterized the 
Romans. 

The development of the individual man was the primary purpose 
of Hebrew Pedagogy. To secure symmetry in this, four distinct types 
of teachers were called into service. 

There were THE PROPHETS, who held up a mirror before the 
nation that its errors and most corrupting evils might be made per- 
fectly clear. They sought to impress upon their countrymen those 
eternal truths which Jehovah had revealed to them, as grounded in 
eternal principles of justice and mercy, which constitute the critera 
of conduct; to give their hearers a correct conception of the character 
of Jehovah as reflected in his practical demands upon his people; 
and, finally, to broaded and deepen their conception of religion and 
make it real as a guiding influence in the daily life of men, whereby 
a spiritual kingdom might be built up, which would ultimately become 
universal. To the accomplishment of this complex purpose they madt 
free use of the story, direct discourse and dialogues. 

Then there were the PRIESTS. They were the guardians of the 
oracles and administrators of the ritual, but their fundamental func- 
tion was TEACHING. They anticipated many of the principles of 
modern pedagogy in their methods. They appealed to the eye and 
to the aesthetic sense. They were alive to the pedagogical potency 
of suggestion. In their use of symbols they were pioneers in the 
manual method. They put their vital teachings in clear, compact 
form, easily understood by the people, and then impressed them 
indelibly upon the popular mind by means of oral decalogue, written 
law and stately ritual. 

There were also the SAGES. They were true lovers of men, 
who addressed themselves primarily, in fact almost exclusively, to 
the individual. Amid the changing conditions of a later age the^ 
were the real successors of the early priests and prophets. They sought 
to inspire in their disciples a right attitude towards learning and to 
inculcate in them, especially the young and inexperienced, practical 
knowledge and wisdom; to develop in them a right attitude towards 
God ,and finally to so stimulate the motive that the unfolding' life 
would function in correct conduct. 

Last, but by no means least, were the RABBIS. They sought to 
interpret and apply the teachings of Israel's early teachers to the life 
needs of their day; to develop the nation in the rigid observance of 
the Torah, which they held to be the full and complete expression 
of the Will of Jehovah. Hence they undertook to regulate, to the 
minutest detail, the conduct of each individual and thus to make 
servants of God by producing servants of the Law. 

While the Rabbis were pre-eminently interested in the individual, 
they had no hope of attaining their ideal save through the nation. 
This ideal was concrete and definite, yet from its very nature im- 
possible of complete realization, for an extreme emphasis upon law 
obscures principles that are fundamental and arrests the development 
of the individual moral and spiritual sense which is the essence of 
all religious progress and growth. 

They made frequent use of the question and answer, but their 

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fundamental method of teaching was ORAL INSTRUCTION, with its 
complementary ROTE MEMORY DRILL. Much of their teaching 
was profusely illustrated, but the largest part consisted of concise 
precepts. These, in time, came to be regarded as supplemental to 
the written law and of equal authority with it. These precepts were 
known as the "Halache" or "Way," that is, "Usage," or "Rule." This 
is the fence or hedge which the Rabbis sought to construct about 
the written law. The aim was to answer every possible question 
that might arise in regard to conduct, so that an infringement of 
any one of the written laws, in spirit or in letter, would be impossible. 
The purpose was excellent, but in practice this method broke down 
with its own weight. It loaded the race with a mass of enactments 
which obscured the rare and really vital principles and blunted the 
individual's sense of right and wrong. 

The great need of Judaism, therefore, was for some one to dis- 
tinguish between the gold and the dross in their inherited teachings; 
to adapt them to the lives of the masses; to shake off the clouding 
casuistry of the schools and to present the truth simply and directly. 
A great teacher was needed to speak positively and with authority; 
to arouse within the hearts of men a deep love for God and an un- 
selfish enthusiasm for His service; to inspire the common people 
with faith in their own powers and to set before them definite and 
practical ways in which they could exercise their religious devotion. 
Most of all the race and the age needed one who could teach not 
merely by word but by deed, demonstrating in his own character and 
life the vital, eternal truth hidden in Israels sacred writings. 

In Jesus of Nazareth this many sided need was supplied. While 
in His method as a teacher He followed the beaten path marked out 
by the Prophets, Priests, Sages and Rabbis — the latter of whom he 
was really one — in the mastery of those methods He surpassed them 
all. What He taught and HOW He taught it were both rooted in the 
educational system of His people, but he took the cup of truth and 
FILLED IT FULL. 

Since the lethargy of the early Christian and Mediaeval Centuries 
was such that pedagogy rose no higher than it had been developed 
by the Greeks, Romans and Hebrews, we may pass at once to the 
transition from Mediaeval to Modern Education. From the Fifteenth 
Century on, there are obviously FOUR growing tendencies in educa- 
tion. FIRST — the endeavor to make it natural and practical rather 
than abstract and theoretical ; S ECOND — to individualize it by including^ 
the care of the body, so sadly neglected and despised during the 
previous centuries; THIRD — to extend it to all classes of people 
rather than to the CLERGY only, as the ancients had done; and, 
FOURTH — to adopt gentle and attractive methods instead of the 
harsh and repulsive methods of former centuries. 

The modern movement dates from the time men began to study 
nature and to record their experience. FRANCES BACON (1561- 
1636) initiated it. He did little for education in a direct way, but his 
works proved an inspiration to the men who did MUCH. Prominent 
among these was JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. He bridged the chasm 
between the repressive education of the middle ages and the ex- 
pressive education of our own day. He saw, and sought to show 
others, that universal education is the essential condition to universal 
freedom. In defiance of public policy or opinion he gave himself 
ceaselessly to the instruction of the lower classes. He was the first 
to arrange a course of instruction extending from infancy to manhood. 
With true pedagogical insight he recognized that the faculties of 
children should be developed in their natural order and through 
things rather than books. 

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JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704 ) strengthened the self- sovereignty of 
€omenius by putting the emphasis upon the PROCESS of learning 
rather than the CONTENT of PRODUCT. 

ROUSSEAU (born at Geneva 1712), a dreamer and political icono- 
clast, grounded the process of pedagogy in the sovereign self of the 
subject. He regarded education as a natural rather than an artificial 
process, that is, a development from within rather than an accretion 
from without; as coming through the working of natural instincts and 
interests rather than response to external force; as an expansion 
of natural powers rather than an acquisition of information; as life 
itself rather than preparation for a future state. 

In the old conception of education, the nature of the child was 
to be made over, by forcing upon him the traditional or customary 
way of thinking or doing, and even of emotional reaction; to sub- 
stitute for his instinctive or natural reactions those artificial reac- 
tions developed through many generations of religious and intellectual 
or social formalism. 

Rousseau overturned all this notion by the discovery that all 
educative effort must start with the instinctive tendencies — that is — 
the sovereign self of the person to be educated. 

PESTALOZZI (1746-1827) siezed the naturalism of Rousseau and 
deduced from it, his psychological pedagogy. He regarded education 
as the organic development of the INDIVIDUAL — mental, moral, 
physical. This development comps through activity initiated Tby 
spontaneous desire for action, which leads to growth along lines pre- 
determined by the nature of the organism— the child. He defined the 
process as "the normal, or natural, progressive, harmonious develop- 
ment of all the powers or faculties of the human being." 

HERBART (1776-1841) took up Pestalozzi's conception and carried 
it far on its way to perfection by the UNIFICATION of mental devel- 
opment. The psychology of the Nineteenth Century, even popular 
today, was FACULATIVE. The soul is regarded as endowed with 
higher and lower capacities, entirely distinct, each class of mental 
phenomena being considered as the function of a given faculty, the 
more important being those of knowledge, feeling and will, each of 
which was regarded as a combination of certain sub -facilities. With 
this diversity of mental life as a basis, the work of schools, accordingly 
diversified in aim, was to provide distinct training, through some set 
form of individual discipline for each separate faculty. The whole 
Doctrine of Discipline was grounded in this faculty psychology. 

In place of this complex psychology, Herbart substituted the con- 
ception of the soul as UNITY, not endowed with intuitive faculties 
but a blank at birth, possessing but one power — that of entering into 
relation with its environment through the nervous system. Through 
these relations the mind is furnished with its primary presentations 
or sense perceptions; and of these the whole mental life is built up. 
The interaction of these presentations lead, through generalization, 
to concepts, and by similar processes of interaction, to acts of judg- 
ment and reasoning. What the teacher has to work with is a mass 
of presentations, coming from two main sources — EXPERIENCE or 
contact with nature and INTERCOURSE or contact with society. 
Through the expansion of the one original power the teacher must 
develop knowledge from experience and sympathy from intercourse. 

Herbart regarded the power of assimilation as the chief charac- 
teristic of the mind, hence, postulated APPERCEPTION as the fun- 
damental principle of pedagogy, and pedagogy as determinative in 
the evolution of character. 

FROEBEL (1782-1852), the father of the Kindergarten, was the 

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prince of all modern educators. He was the first to see and to state 
clearly that education is "Conscious Evolution" and to draw the 
practical conclusion from this insight. The very term "Kindergar- 
ten" tells the story. It means a garden in which the plants are 
children, who, in order that they may attain the greatest perfection, 
are to receive the proper care and nourishment at the proper time. 
He saw distinctly that all upward evolution is due to conscious SELF- 
ACTIVITY, under the proper stimuli, and that such activity, evoked 
in an orderly way and continually progressive, is true blessedness. 
So the circle is closed. The scientific and sociological tendencies 
in modern education are but the amplification and application of the 
doctrines progressively developed by Bacon, Comenius, Locke, Pes- 
talozzi, Herbart and Froebel. Every development in method and 
principle has been a deepening consciousness of the significance and 
potency of the person to be educated. Since self- sovereignty is an 
attribute of personality and complements the self- consciousness which 
functioned in the evolution of individualismi — the progress of pedagogy 
perfects the philosophy of history in the demonstration that person- 
ality is not only real but DETERMINATIVE. 



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CHAPTER I V. 

The Nature of Personality. 

'^^^^^ HE primacy of Personality, as intrinsic reality, precludes the 
£ /^N possibility of its exhaustive analysis. It cannot be accur- 
M J ately defined because it cannot be transcended. The only 

^^^^^ process by which its nature can be ascertained is OB- 
^^^ SERVATION. The field is two- fold, viz., the historical 
background and the psychological phenomena of the evolving potency 
which constitutes the channel and the current of human culture. 

Personality was discovered by the Greeks, as we have seen, when 
they began to reflect on the freedom they had won by the exercise 
of individual initiative. But their conception was crude and defective. 
They knew nothing of the unity and universality of that potency 
which isolates the individual as a sovereign self and at the same time 
unifies him with all mankind as a human person. Aristotle doubtless 
attained the highest development not only in Greek, but in Pagan and 
pre-Christian thought, and yet he regarded some men as born to be 
savages (Phusei Barbaroi), others as destined, by nature, to be slaves 
(Phusei Douloi), and women as merely "nature's failures to produce 
men." 

In tracing the evolution of Individualism we found that Person- 
ality, in the full flower of its unity and universality, is the richest and 
ripest fruit of Christianity. What Jesus wrought out in His holy 
life two millenniums ago, has, with the passing of the centuries, been 
thought out by His followers. The conception of the Incarnation 
rounded the idea of Personality into a triune perfection. The per- 
sonal union of human nature with Diety, in a unique instance, and 
the capacity of humanity as a whole, regardless of race or sex, to 
participate in that union served to reveal the depth of latent possi- 
bilities not only in a favored few but in man as such. The sense 
of responsibility involved in this possibility inevitably induced intro- 
spection and thereby generated the intuition of freedom. 

Thus Christianity actually wrought out the potency in which the 
unity and movement of civilization is grounded. The intellectual 
reaction upon the evolving energy was the Christian conception of 
Personality. The relation between the developing capacity and the 
unfolding idea is nothing less than identity for, as we shall see, per- 
sonality is both a factor and a function. Since both aspects are, in 
reality, phases of Christianity, both the concept and the capacity are 
Christian. Personality, therefore, can neither be comprehended nor 
apprehended or realized apart from Christianity. 

It was not an accident, then, that the first master of introspection 
was a Christian Theologian. While the doctrines of Paul reflect 
profound insight into the phenomena which manifested the marvelous 
personality of Jesus and the Fathers of the first century did much 
in the development of the doctrines postulated by Paul, it was 

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Augustine who first went back of the doctrines and discorered, by 
a critical anaylsis, the presence of the potency which functioned in 
them. The record of his experience is preserred in his famous 
"Confessions," from which the following lines will suflBce to show 
something of his penetrating introspection: 

"I come to the spacious fields and palaces of memory, wherein 
are treasured unnumbered images of things of sense, and all our 
thoughts about them. — There in that vast court of memory are present 
to me heaven, earth, sea and all that I can think upon, all that I 
have forgotten therein. There, too, I meet 'MYSELF,' and whatever 
I have felt and done, my experiences, my beliefs, my hopes and plans 
for the years to come. — Great is this power of memory, exceeding 
great, O God. Who has fathomed its abyss? As yet this power 
is MINE, a part of my very nature, nor can I comprehend all that I 
myself really am. — Great is this power of memory, a wondrous thing, 
O God, in all its depth and manifold immensity, and this thing is my 
mind, and this mind is MYSELF. — Fear and amazement overcome me 
when I think of it. And yet men go abroad and gaze upon the 
mountains and the waves, the broad rivers, the wide ocean, the 
courses of the stars, and pass themselves, the crowning wonder by. — 
Go not abroad, retire into thyself, for truth dwells in the inner man. — 
The mind knows best what is nearest to it, and nothing is nearer 
to the mind than itself. — We exist and we know that we exist, and 
love the existence and the knowledge; and on these three points no 
specious falsehood can deceive us — for without any misleading fal- 
lacies or fancies of the imagination, I am absolutely certain that I 
exist, and that I know and desire my own existence. In knowing 
myself, the mind knows its own substantial existence (substantiam 
suam novit), and in its certainty of itself, it is certain of its own 
substantiality (de substantia sua)." 

The Trinitarian controversies did much to pave the way for such 
self- analysis as this. Monastic mediation caught up and carried on 
what the Councils began in their doctrinal deductions, so by the time 
Augustine sounded the abyss of his being the conception of person- 
ality had sufficiently evolved to comprehend the unity of the individual 
man, his indestructible identity, his inherent dignity, his wonderful 
possibilities and consequent worth. 

It was inevitable that the dogmatic basis upon which all this 

rested, however, should be cast into the crucible of criticism The 

foundation was swept to the winds when personality developed the 
audacity to enquire "Can man, as finite personality, know God, as 
Infinite Personality?" This issue was inevitable because it was an 
indispensable factor in the evolution of personality. It was clear that 
reflective thought could not escape the quicksands of agnosticism by 
reasoning from the personality of man to the personality of God, if 
the personality of man had been derived from an illegitimate belief 
in the Personality of God. In other words, to postulate the Per- 
sonality of God as the ground for human personality and then reason 
from finite personality to the personality of the Infinitive, was rea- 
soning in a circle and intenable. Faith demanded a firmer foundation 
than that. But one course was possible for those bold enough to un- 
dertake it, and that was a critical review of the psychical field itself, 
with all traditional authority, whether philosophical or religious, 
repudiated, all the energies being expended on human nature itself, 
by itself, to ascertain its real content, its capabilities, with their 
inevitable and necessary limits. 

Mediaeval Speculation arose therefore, in the normal order of 
noumenal development. Just as the exercise of freedom by the 
Greeks provoked them to reflective thought and thereby led to the 

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discovery of personality, so the philosophical pioneers who first 
crossed the chasm between man and God were, by their own achieve- 
ment, driven to new and wider fields of thought for a basis upon 
which to buttress the pillars of their bridge. The result was the birth 
of the ultimate attribute or comprehending characteristic of person- 
ality — self-consciousness. That is, in building the bridge over which 
reflective thought could pass from finite to infinite personality, finite 
personality evolved in the very achievement that maturity which is 
comprehended by self- consciousness. 

Descartes laid the foundation by appropriating the thought of 
Augustine and translating it into his famous maxim: "Cogito ergo sum 
(I think, therefore, I am)," — that is, "Thought is the evidence of its 
own reality," and the real existence of the thinker the individual man. 
Leibnitz built upon this burnished base by coining the conception of 
individuality as involving both the isolation from and relation to 
the whole outside universe; the isolation of separate, self- identical 
existence; the relation of sensitive and mental intercourse, as we 
would now say, though he himself used the very different and much 
less adequate term, "reflection, as in a mirror." The great master, 
however, who really ushered in the modern era in the evolution of 
personality as a potency wrought out and a conception thought out, 
was Immanuel Kant. His great achievement was the attainment of 
geniune self- consciousness. Having exercised it in the penetration of 
his introspection, he at once identified it as the secret of self analysis 
and the key to personality. 

What Kant did was to discriminate the self as a subject from 
the self as an object; that is, the self as thinking from the self as 
thought about; and demonstrate, by an impregnable dialectic, that 
all knowledge is due to the activity of the subject, EGO, or Self, in 
bringing the multiplicity of external facts or internal feelings into 
relation with its own central unity, and thereby into correlation with 
one another. Ths demonstration comprehends the corollary that 
what the Ego has no means of thus relating to itself cannot become 
an object of knowledge. He further established for all time to come 
the fact that the Ego or Self has not only the power to make objects 
for its own understanding, but also the power to make objects for its 
own pursuit, motives for its own conduct, hence must be regarded 
as self- determining or able to become a law to itself, and in this sense 
FREE. A person, then, as conceived by Kant, was a self-conscious 
and self- determining individual, and as such the source from which 
thought and conduct radiate, and the end whose realization thought 
and conduct seek. 

The one lamentable defect of Kant's otherwise splendid system is 
its "Phenomenalism.' ' He did not regard the Ego known in self- 
consciousness as the real Ego. He postulated the real Ego as a 
"Thing in itself, out of all relation to our faculties and known only 
as a Noumenon or necessary idea of Reason," that is. Reason demands 
the existence of the Ego as necessary to knowledge; but since we are 
conscious of ourselves only in our mental operations, all that we 
really attain is a synthesis of those operations, which by a paralogism 
or necessary illusion of the Reason, we mistake for the Ego The 
real Ego, he inferred, must lie beneath all our mental operations and 
out of relation to our faculties as "a thing in itself," that is, a 
"noumenal or transcedent Ego." He says, "All our intuition is only 
the presentation of phenomena; and the things which we intuit are not 
in themselves as our presentation of them. The Ego is but the 
consciousness of my thought." "We intuit ourselves only as we are 
internally affected by ourselves; that is, we know the Self or Ega 
only as phenomenon, not as it is in itself." 

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Despite the penetration of his insight and the skill of his intro- 
spection, Kant seems to have been victimized by the spatialism of 
'Common Sense" which refuses to regard an energy or potency as 
ultimate reality. The impassable chasm which he digs between the 
"phenomenon" of self- consciousness and the "Noumenon" of Reason 
subjects him to the sharp indictment of unintentionally annihilating 
knowledge and surrendering the field to agnosticism. It is regret- 
able indeed that both transcendental rationalism and phenomenalism 
must be laid at the door of one who wrought so well in the evolution 
of philosophy because he was not the intentional progenitor of either. 
He plainly says "My own existence is certainly not mere phenomenon, 
much less mere illusion." Again, "When I think, I am conscious that 
my Ego thinks in me and not some other being. I conclude, there- 
fore, that this thinking in me does not inhere in another thing outside 
of me, but in myself; consequently that I am a substance, that is, 
that I exist by myself without being a predicate of another being 
(Harris — Philosophic Basis of Theism, page 103, quoted from Vor- 
iesungen uber die philos. Religionslehre; Leipzig Ed. 1817, p. 80)." 

The marvel, after all, is not than a mind of such incisive powers 
should have blundered, but that one mind, no matter how incisive, 
should have achieved so much in critical analysis. Mankind is 
and shall ever be indebted to Immanuel Kant for two definite dis- 
coveries, of infinite import in the evolution of personality, viz.. Self- 
consciousness and "The Katagorical Imperative." In the former he 
provided for mankind the key which unlocks the mystery and thereby 
makes for the mastery of personality; and in the latter he pro- 
duced the anchor which saved ethics from the enervation of relativity 
and thereby preserved the social soil for the culture which shall bring 
this fragrant flower to full and final fruition. 

Modern thought has merely modified and clarified Kant's concep- 
tion of personality. Its vital truth persists. Seething skepticism has 
surged against it, but it stands like the rock of Gibraltar. The fires 
have burned out the phenomenalism which marred and maimed it. 
The validity of knowledge is no longer questioned. The intuitions are 
not only accepted as authoritative, but the reality of personality as 
the deepest and most determinative of them all is the verdict of even 
common sense. I know more surely than all else that "I AM." And 
I also know WHAT I am. 

In the survey of selfhood, introspection discriminates three definite 
aspects, viz., the object known, the subject knowing and the knowledge 
or relation between them. They are discriminated aspects only, how- 
ever, for in the very act of discriminating them, their identity is per- 
haps the most ineradicable dictum of common sense. 

The capacity of the knowing self or Ego to know itself in its own 
operations, that is, to function as a subject- object, constitutes the fun- 
damental characteristic of Personality. The technical term by which 
it is designated is 

SELF- CONSCIOUSNESS. 
The consciousness that "I think," is always in identity, the con- 
sciousness "It is T who think." Even agnostics who deny the reality 
of a spirit or mind admit that this is the testimony of consciousness. 
Right here is the vital defect in Kant's conception which modem 
thought has rectified. I do not know myself as a "thought" or "act," 
but as the thinker of my thoughts and actor of my act. In other 
words, the consciousness of self is knowledge of the agent in the 
action, of the substance in its properties, of the being in its mani- 
festations. If this intuition is a delusion, thought itself is a delusion, 
for if I cannot rely upon my consciousness in every particular I can- 
not rely upon it at all. The transcendental Ego, then, is branded by 

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the first law of knowledge as a fiction created to meet an imaginary 
necessity founded on a mistake. Reason not only does not de- 
mand a "noumenon" or transcendental Ego but renders its existence 
impossible. A thought without a thinker is as irrational as a motion 
without the body which moves and the force that moves it. Eliminate 
the Ego of consciousness from intelligence and consciousness evap- 
orates. Convert the "I" of "I think" or "I exist" into a noumenon 
or transcendental "I" and existence as well as consciousness is thereby 
annihilated. 

But consciousness cannot be annihilated. It subsists in its two 
essential aspects, viz., as subject and attribute, or substance and 
quality — "I think," "I exist." Reason refuses to predicate a mere 
phenomenon of an unthinkable substance, for in so doing, the con- 
scious being becomes a phenomenal non- being and "the subject which 
is postulated as its reality would be a nugatory symbol, a zero, sig- 
nifying only the cessation of intelligence." 

The subject-object of self- consciousness is real if consciousness 
is real, else nothing is real and existence is a delusion. But existence 
is not a delusion because I know that I am by what I do. The cat- 
egory of substance or subject and quality is only our way of appre- 
hending the one Ego in its two real aspects, as the individual being 
persisting in identity, as the subject of varied qualities and successive 
actions. 

The inherent dynamic of consciousness is implied in this deduc- 
tion. Just as the "I" and the "Me" are discriminated in the field of 
consciousness, "desires" and "will" are discriminated in self- con- 
sciousness as inherent attributes which function is self-determination. 
That is, the complement of the subject- object is the subject- agent. 

The "I" or "Ego" of consciousness is a synthetic unity indeed be- 
cause it not only real but functional. It knows, it contemplates, it 
desires, it DOES and in each phase of the function it is the same 
SUBECT. In bold contrast with the complex, facultative functionary 
of Aristotle, the dynamic potency of personality persists as an individ- 
ual, incapable of being disparted into a multiplicity or being blended 
with other individuals. 

Thus the "I," conscious of its own various and continuous opera- 
tions, is always conscious of itself as ONE and the same individual 
and in whatever complex wholes it finds itself united with other beings, 
it never loses itself in the complex whole but is always conscious of 
itself in its individuality. Not only so, but in sense- perception the 
"I" is always conscious of itself as distinct from the outer world, 
which it knows as other than itself. 

The "I" is always conscious of itself as IDENTITY. The intuition 
'I am," not only includes the intuition "I am ONE," but "I am the 
SAME one." Through all the changes of time and circumstance, the 
self is conscious that it is the SAME self and so unites the thoughts 
and feelings of today with those of all bygone years. This is more 
than mere memory, whatever they mean who ground identity in it. 
It is and can be nothing less than the function of a factor that sub- 
sists in identity. Self-consciousness is, therefore, the consciousness 
of unity and identity, that is the three- fold intuition "I am," "I am 
ONE," and "I am the SAME one," therefore, "I am a persisting 
POTENCY, that is, a PERSON." 

SELF-DETERMINATION. 

The sense of FREEDOM is innate in consciousness. So obvious is 

this that even those who regard it as a delusion are obliged to admit 

that it is a delusion from which there is no escape. The intuition "I 

am FREE," is the essential presupposition of facts, in the phenomena 

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of psychology, which cannot be repudiated. Take for instance, the 
sense of RESPONSIBILITY with which every rational man is simply 
saturated. It would be rank presumption to argue the universality of 
this phenomena. No one will deny it. The only question here is its 
significance. It is an effect the only cause of which can be the fact 
that every man's decisions are his own and he knows it. In other 
words, the capacity to reflect is grounded in the consciousness of 
casuality. 

The very phenomena of effort in decisions demonstrates that the 
deciding subject is doing something, is exerting energy in the decision 
process; as Professor Home says, "is rowing, not drifting." 

Law and morality alike imply Freedom. Deeds deemed right in- 
variably culminate in a sense of self-satisfaction. On the other hand, 
deeds deemed wrong are always the occasion of self-condemnation or 
remorse. The reality of remorse will not be questioned for one 
moment. It is utterly incompatible with Determinism. Puppets who 
simply play a part in the inevitable order of things would be over- 
whelmed with a sense of humiliation and despair, but they would 
have no compunctions of conscience. Humiliation, however, is not the 
emotion which men actually experience when they reflect on their 
evil deeds. The flame that consumes them is Guilt; the fire that 
cannot be quenched is memory, seething with remorse. Certainly men 
would have exorcised this agony long ago if they could, but they 
cannot It still stares us in the face, overshadowing our hearts with 
sadness and driving its countless victims into madness, suicide, 
despair and awful forebodings of the after- world. Remorse is only 
the darker name for the consciousness of freedom. 

The complement of satisfaction and remorse is praise and blame. 
The former express the attitude of one to himself; the latter the at- 
titude of others to him or of him to others. This is the social argu- 
ment for freedom, and it is convincing. Of course praise and blame 
only prove that we regard each other as free, but the fact that we so 
regard each other cannot be disposed of any easier than the intuition 
itself because it is grounded in the intuition. I regard others as free 
because, and only because, I know I am free. 

The term by which the freedom of the Self to determine the 
ends or objects to which its enegry shall be directed, and its actual 
exertion in the direction of the determined end or object, is WILL. 
The worthlessness of most that has been written concerning the 
"Freedom of the Will," is due to its phenomenalism. The will, so 
called, is but the name of a function. The same Self which KNOWS 
also Desires, deliberates, decides and DOES. In other words, as we 
shall see, the subject- object is also the subject- agent. 

The phenomena of self-determination is simple enough. Most 
of the mystery is merely the mist and fog in which the "Noumenon" 
or "Transcendental WILL," is lost. What the knowing- self actually 
finds itself, as the subject-object, DOING in self-determination is, as 
already intimated, desiring, deliberating, deciding, DOING. The first 
three phases of the process are comprehended by the term CHOICE 
and the last may better be designated VOLITION. The function of 
the former is the determination of the object or end to which the 
energy of the Self shall be directed and that of the latter, its actual 
exertion. 

The fallacy of Determinism is due to the failure of determinists 
to discriminate between CHOICE and VOLITION in the dynamics of 
personality. To limit the function of the 'Will" to the mere exer- 
tion of energy is to contradict the intuition of choice in conscious- 
ness. Moreover, to regard initiative as the mere mechanical man- 
ipulation of motives is to annihilate the feeling and moving subject 

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of the motives. 

Freedom is grounded in the autonomy and autocracy of the Self. 
As a sovereign subject, subsisting in unity, it is a center of causality, 
hence, not only reflects but reacts in the initiative of desire and the 
direction of inherent energy. In other words, the Self, as we shall see, 
is not a substance but a POTENCY, and as such is the energy exerted 
in self-determination. Motives, then, are but names for the feelings 
which stimulate the self in the volitional phase of self-determina- 
tion. They essentially presuppose the initiation of a causative agent, 
hence, cannot be regarded as determinative. They can and do in- 
tensify but they do not and cannot initiate. 

Since the Self is sovereign and dynamic rather than static, the 
regnancy of personality is not inherent in its power to execute but 
its capacity to reflect, that is to INHIBIT impulse. After all, man- 
hood is not a matter of self-assertion but of self-control. Restraint 
is the primal function of reason. Desire or IMPULSE is seized by 
REASON and sidetracked unless its content be such that the apper- 
ceiving mass fuses with it in the phenomena of attention, in which 
case it becomes the end or object toward which the potency of the 
Self is automatically directed. 

To regard the Will as "the resultant of the impulses and inhibi- 
tions," as Dr. James expresses it, is merely to regard choice as the 
resultant of voluntary attention, and volition as the automatic asser- 
tion of the Self in the exertion of its energy, released for the purpose 
of realizing the impelling desire. The phenomena of the "Sensori- 
motor Arc," which finds expression in the well-known psychological 
maxim, "We are coupled up for action," demonstrates the automatic 
propensity of the self." 

The vast significance and far-reaching import of suggestion has 
its explanation right here. The value of advertising, the potency of 
the pulpit and the press, and the phenomena of fashion are all but 
so many phases of the automatic reactions of the Self upon sugges- 
tion. Impressions inevitably culminate in impulses and uninhibited 
Impulses inevitably culminate in motor response. 

This fact reduces the simplicity of self-determination to the 
minimum. Self control is purely a matter of INHIBITION, and but 
two methods of inhibition are possible, viz., REPRESSION and SUB- 
STITUTION. In the former, both the inhibited idea and the inhibiting 
idea, the impulsive idea and the idea which negates it, remain along 
with each other in consciousness, producing a certain inward strain 
or tension there; whereas in the latter, the inhibiting idea super- 
cedes altogether the idea which it inhibits, and the latter quickly 
vanishes from the field. 

Self-determination, then, is the capacity of the sovereign subject 
in personality, to attend or hold fast to an idea by the inhibition of 
all other ideas, and thereby, automatically exercise the energy of the 
self upon the focal point. The capacity to attend is the capacity to 
e'ther repress or substitute in any given inhibition, hence, the at- 
tending subject is sovereign or FREE in the function designated by 
the term WILL. 

It is evident that the WILL is merely the name of the "I" re- 
garded as self- determining or capacitated to direct and exert inherent 
potency; just as reason is the "I" considered as rational or capacitated 
to reflect, that is, to function as a subject-object. The terms, there- 
fore, designate two discriminated aspects of an indivisible unity — 
the inherent energy of which may be exerted in reflection or introspec- 
tion; and at the same time expended in directing and exerting its 
potency. In other words, if a person be regarded as WILL, he is ra- 

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tional WILL; if he be regarded as Reason, he is entrgizing and self- 
directing or self- determining Reason. 

SELF- MANIFESTATION. 

Since the ultimate end of action in personality is, as we shall 
see, another person, the object which enlists the energies of the Self 
is, in its last analysis, what may be called its MANIFESTATION. 

Desire is inherent in self- consciousness. It furnishes the ma- 
terial upon which the Will acts, hence must be a coessential element 
with the Will in personality. Desire is the form which appetite 
necessarily takes in a rational or self-conscious being because ap- 
petite is consciously directed to the end which reason presents. 
Desire is, thus, the synonym of the potency or energy which consti- 
tutes the essence of the Self. 

Dr. Illingworth (Personality — Human and Divine, page 36) clas- 
sifies Desire into "Acquisition," and "Action." We desire to in- 
corporate and assimilate with ourselves the various contents of our 
material, moral and intellectual environment, such as our food, our 
property, our knowledge. We also desire to project ourselves into 
and modify that environment by exercising our wealth, our powers, 
our skill or our influence upon it. 

This projecting propensity is what we have already designated 
as IMPULSE, or the inherent propensity to react upon environment. 
The phenomena of suggestion and intimation have their explanation 
right here. Desire may be regarded as steam in the boiler. Acquisi- 
tion is one chest and ACTION is the other. Suggestion and Imitation 
serve to release the pent-up energy by providing an avenue of escape. 
It is no mystery that children are fidgety. The common sense ex- 
planation that it is because they are "full of life," is scientifically 
accurate. They live under high pressure of the desire to do, and it is 
largely limited to the physical field because of their undeveloped 
intellectual and emotional capacities. 

Acquisitive and active desire impel us into communication with 
other persons. We are so constituted that we cannot regard inanimate 
property, uncommunicated knowledge, unreciprocated emotion, sol- 
itary action otherwise than as means to an end. We press on through 
it all till we have found persons like ourselves, with whom to share 
it, and then we are at rest. Thus all persons are ends to us, when 
compared with impersonal things, but in different degrees, for we 
have various desires and each of them relates us differently with 
other persons. We may be more passive and receive sympathy from 
them, or more active and influence them. 

The whole field of Aesthetics is comprehended by the desire to 
infiuence other persons. Every phase of art has its source in this 
self -projecting propensity of the self. Literature, oratory, archi- 
tecture, music, all these are but the embodiment of self going out to 
other selves to act upon them and effect in them the emotion which 
provoked the production. 

The desire to acquire reciprocal emotions and thoughts drive 
us to intercourse with other persons. This is the real import of the 
so-called social instinct. We desire to be not only with other people, 
but give and take in the interplay of personality because thereby 
the potency of the Self has an outlet that reacts both ways in the 
gratification of desire. 

Personality intuitively seeks more than partial satisfaction. The 
Self seeks, with a restlessness that is like the tireless tides of the 
sea, that person in whom the entire personality may rest. This is 
the relationship of love. Its intensity may admit of degrees, but 
it is mstinguished from all other affections or desires by being the 

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outcome of the entire personality. It is "our very self and not a 
department of us that loves." What we love in others is not some- 
thing about them but THEM, all of them. We love them for what 
they are, therefore, love may be defined as the mutual desire of 
persona for each other AS SUCH; the mode in which the life of 
desire finds its climax, its adequate and final satisfaction. 

SELF- APPRECIATION. 

The intuition "I AM," is also the intuition "I AM WORTH 
WHILE," that is, "I AM AN END." Self- appreciation is, thus, the 
crowning characteristic of personality. It comprehends all the vir- 
tues of manhood and constitutes the very essence of morality. 

Self- consciousness essentially includes the consciousness of the 
self as an unrealized possibility, that is, the intuition "I AM" com- 
prehends the intuition "I CAN BE MORE THAN I AM." 

Personality is but another name for the passion to attain the un- 
attained and the unattainable. The intuitive aspiration of the subject 
begets value in the subject- object because that WANTED must have 
WORTH or it would not be wanted. 

Personality is, thus. Reason, Will, Love and Aspiration, subsisting 
in a common potency, the essential attributes of which are self- con- 
sciousness, self-determination, self- manifestation and self -apprecia- 
tion. In its unity and identity, the potency is primal and functions, 
as the thought of a self that wills, loves and aspires; the Will of a 
self that loves, aspires and thinks; the Love of a self that aspires, 
thinks and wills; and the Aspiration of a self that thinks, wills and 
loves. In other words, every function comprehends and is charac- 
terized by every other function of the subject. 

Since personality is a vital unity, it may be more aptly regarded 
as an energy than as a substance. No matter which term be adopted 
it is 

ULTIMATE. 

All knowledge is personal knowledge because personality is the 
gateway through which it must pass. Matter, force, energy, ideas, 
time, space, law, freedom, cause and all the rest of the mental accom- 
modations are meaningless phrases apart from personal experience. 
In a sense, Protagoras was right when he aflBrmed that "Man is the 
measure of all things," because the conception of reality itself is 
grounded in the intuition of self- existence. The age-long riddle of 
reality and appearance has its solution in the distant echo of the 
voice that whispers from the depths of the personal consciousness — 
"I think, therefore, I am." In the antithesis between the thinker 
and the object of his thought — between myself and that which is 
related to me — is to be found the type and the source of the universal 
contrast between the one and the many, the permanent and the 
changeable, the real and the apparent. That which I see, that which 
I hear, that which I think, that which I feel, changes and passes 
away each moment of my varied existence. I who see and hear and 
feel and think am the one continuous self, whose existence gives 
unity and connection to the whole. Personality comprises all that we 
know of that which exists; relation to personality comprises all that 
we know of that which SEEMS to exist. 

This ultimate energy cannot be regarded as the product of pure 
reason, unconscious will, mere matter or blind force, because reason, 
will, matter and force are only abstractions from personal experience; 
that is to say, they are parts of the SELF separated from their con- 
text and then supposed to exist in the outer world; or to put the 
same thing in another way, they are phenomena of the outer world, 
which are supposed to resemble parts of myself, taken out of their 

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contejxt. But it is only in their context that these parts of me hare 
any real existence. Will, in the only form in which I know it, is 
determined by reason and desire. Matter, in the only form in which 
I know it — that is is my own body — is informed by reason and de- 
sire and will. Reason, as I know it, is inseparable from desire and 
will. And when in my own case I speak of reason, my reason or my 
will apart, I am making abstration of this particular aspecst of myself, 
which, as such, has only an ideal and imaginary existence. Conse- 
quently names which are given to phenomena in the virtue of their re- 
sembling or being supposed to resemble those separate aspects, ab- 
stract aspects, of myself, must be equally ideal and imaginary in 
their denotation. And I cannot in any way conceive a living, and 
complex whole like myself to be derived from anything outside of 
me which can only be known and named because it resembles one 
of my elements; when the element in question must be "artificially 
isolated, and, so to speak, killed in the process before the resemblance 
can be established." 

Personality is, therefore, the most real thing we know, indeed it 
is the cannon of reality. No matter what the definition of reality, it 
has degrees. Letze has well said, "the greater the number of attrib- 
utes that attach to anything, the more real that thing is." What- 
ever effects me permanently or more intensely is more real than 
that which effects me momentarily or slightly. As nothing influences 
me so variously or intensely or possesses so permanent a possibility 
of influence as another person, personality is the most real thing 
which I can conceive outside me and it corresponds most completely 
to my own personality within. Hence each person, as we have al- 
ready seen, is an end to me; something beyond which, in that par- 
ticular direction, I cannot go, and in which I am content to rest. 

SPIRIT. 

The significance of all this is that Personality is spiritual in its 
nature. The word spirit, it is true, is an indefinable word, but it is 
not merely a negative term for the opposite of matter. It has a dis- 
tinct connotation for ordinary use. It implies an order of existence 
which transcends the order of sensible experience — the material order 
— yet which so far from excluding the material order, includes and 
elevates it to higher use, precisely as the chemical includes and 
transfigures the mechanical, or the vital the chemical order. Per- 
sonality, as described in this chapter, belongs to this spiritual order, 
the only sphere in which self- consciousness and freedom can subsist. 

Man has always believed himself to be a spiritual being. Here 
and there the belief has been reasoned out of him, but unquestion- 
ably it is the normal belief. It is an intuition, hence, inherent in 
self- consciousness. The "I" knows intuitively that it differs from 
all we call material. Space and time, for instance, are necessary 
conditions of material existence, including that of our own material 
organism. But I am conscious that in knowing things I take them 
out of space and time and invest them, so to speak, with an entirely 
different mode of existence which has no analogue outside my con- 
sciousness. Multiplicity and movement are essential characteristics 
of the material world, whereas I am conscious of permanency as self- 
identical and ONE. Necessity or determination from without is 
chacteristic of the material world, one event producing another 
in endless continuity of causation; whereas, I am directly conscious 
of being self-determined from within — a source of original acivity, 
a free agent, a WILL. 

In the sensation expressed by the words "I feel hot," the element 
"hot" may be stated in terms of mass and motion, but neither the 

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"feel" nor the "I" can. The evident impossibility of this fact led 
to the transition from dogmatic materialism to Agnosticism. Agnos- 
ticism admits the reality of a spirit world, but denominates it the 
"unknowable." But how can one know a thing is unknowable un- 
less he knows that it exists? To affirm that the "Ego" or "Spirit" Is 
unknowable is, therefore, to affirm an attribute of that which it is 
contended has no attribute, and so Agnosticism is reduced to absurd- 
ity. The only option is belief in the Spiritual and recognition of 
personality as the essential mode of its existence. 

Since Personality is a spiritual energy, subsisting in self-con- 
sciousness as Reason, Will, Love and Aspiration, it must be nothing 
less, in its essential nature, than 

DIVINE. 
The inner sense of dependence confirms this interpretation. It 
is the homing instinct of the finite Spirit which welled up within 
the superb Self of Augustine and exclaimed "O God, thou hast made 
us for Thyself and we are restless till we rest in thee." Just as 
the unity of the finite person is grounded in the polarity of the finite 
spirit, the universality of the finite person is grounded in the polarity 
of the Infinite Spirit. Human persons are, therefore, but so many 
centers of Divine energy. This is no mere pantheistic conception, 
because the Infinite Person is an infinite "I," an Infinite SUBJECT, 
and while it is true that finite persons are of the Infinite "Me," they 
are none the less finite Subjects, hence centers of energy as positive 
and polar in their propensities, as is the infinite center and ground 
of universal unity. 

Pantheism and Deism alike disappear with the repudiation of 
creation in time. The integrity of both the Finite and the Infinite 
is preserved by the fellowship function of personality. The self- 
manifesting propensity of the Infinite Person essentially functions in 
energizing centers which are not only ends but free agents and finite 
subject- objects. Since the finite Self is but a manifestation of the 
Infinite Self, the finite Subject must subsist in the Infinite Subject 
and partake, therefore, of its Divine nature. 

If finite personality be a creation at all, then, it must be an 
eternal creation. The idea of duration is not involved in the term 
eternal, in this connection, but rather the transcendence of time. 
Eternal creation, as defined by Dr. Buckham, means "a, Perfect Self 
so timelessly imparting itself to an imperfect self, and thus so con- 
stituting it, that the relation is at least not less than that of creator 
and created (Personality and the Chrisian Ideal, page 139)." 

Purely passive products or external creation are unknown. There 
is always reciprocity. Creation is essentially co-operative. "Creator 
and creature unite to produce the ever evolving order. Personality 
then, must be regarded as a Becoming. Initial forthputtings of 
Divine Personality become themselves personalities by a receptive- 
active process." Each becomes more and more a self as he transmutes 
the Divine Life into a free- center of personal activity. "If," as Dr. 
Buckham says, "one must attempt the impossible, let this be our 
interpretation of the origin of human personality. Ever we receive, 
and in receiving appropriate, energize, institute an ever developing 
personality. Ever as persons we are being created, constituted, em- 
powered, developing ourselves. Systole and diastole, accumulation 
and expenditure, receiving and acting, Divine and human — never can 
these be disunited (Personality and the Christian Ideal, page 191)." 

"We cannot wish to define the exact way in which creation issued 
forth from the Creator, but only the import of the creative act; and 
the import is th's, that in order to the existence of the spirit- world, 

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which of itself is no natural consequence flowing from the being of 
God, a Divine will was necessary, and a determination of it which 
might not have been. And this is how the notion of creation differs 
from that of an emanation or development of the world. We cannot 
think of this divine will, as if it were an historical fact, which arose 
for the first time in God at a particular, though unassignable, mo- 
ment, and had behind it a spiritual predilection on the part of God, 
whence Its origin can be derived. All these attempts to write a 
history of the life which God led before creation, or to set forth 
the inner development by which he came to be a Creator are errors, 
and mix up the orderly connection and system of thoughts, by which 
little by little we seek to picture to ourselves the Divine being, with 
the genuine development of that being itself, and so confuse the his- 
tory of our ideas of the thing with the history of the thing itself (Lotze 
— Philosophy of Religion, page 98).)" 

Lotze's thought is admirably conserved in Buckham's term "im- 
partation." It avoids the localizing and materializing aspect of 
"Emanationism," which distributes God piece -meal and lets the parts 
find their way back to the source, and at the same time graphically 
expresses the vital relation between God and man. 

Of course the mere use of a term purged of the Cosmical does 
not eliminate the mystery of the process by which The Infinite Person 
constitutes finite persons. The mystery persists because of the spat- 
ializing tendency of common sense. But the Self cannot be spatialized 
because personality is no more a mechanical product of God's creative 
fiat than it is a disparted piece of Him. 

The fact is, as Buckham well says, "We are not made persons 
outright and forthwith, but we become persons by a process of devel- 
opment," and that development is wrought out by God's impartation 
of Himself to the finite person in much the same way as a father 
imparts himself to his child. 

Our survey of the field is finished. Under the searchlight of 
observation, Personality proves to be a SPIRITUAL ENERGY or 
DIVINE POTENCY which subsists in Self- Consciousness, as a stream 
of thought, in the flow or movement of which the sovereign Self 
functions as Reason, Will, Love and Aspiration. In other words, the 
personality of a person consists of and is measured by his capacity 
to exercise the synthesis of self- consciousness, self-determination, 
self -manifestation and self- appreciation. 



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D 



CHAPTEk V. 

The Pedagogics of Personality. 

O man is bom a person, but every man is born with the 
capacity to become a person, and the expression which 
seems a fit designation for the PROCESS by which the 
possible person becomes the real person is "The Pedagogics 
of Personality." 

The logical point of departure, in following the foot- prints of 
forces as they function in the phenomena of a process, is the begin- 
ning, and The Pedagogics of Personality, both as a Science and an 
Art, begin with the birth of the possible person. The term "Capacity," 
therefore, comprehends what may be regarded as the "GERM," or, as 
Thiselton Mark calls it, "The Nucleus' of Personality. 

The reality of this germ or primitive potency need not be argued. 
It is assumed as the essential presupposition of the growth or devel- 
opment of personality. Of course an environment is essential to the 
development of an embryo, but this fact neither disproves nor min- 
imizes the primal fact that the life history of the embryo is, in some 
mysterious way, wrapped up in its germ- cell. 

Thiselton Mark (Unfolding of Personality, Chapter I) analyzes 
the "original nucleus of human personality" into "a spontaneous 
activity; a tendency to develop along the lines, both physical and 
mental, which are characteristic of man; and a marked capacity to 
differentiate in response to the call of environment, and thus be 
modified by it." Since individuality is effected by the interaction 
of the inner potency with its unique tendency and environment, there 
seems to be, as Mark says, a fourth fundamental quality or tendency 
in the original nucleus, which functions as a sort of "Ideal" that 
identifies the finite consciousness with the Infinite. 

The nucleus, as thus analyzed, is true to the nature of Person- 
ality. "Spontaneous Activity" and "the capacity to differentiate'' in 
reaction are clearly synonymous with SELF-DETERMINATION. The 
Spiritual Energy or Divine Potency which, as we saw in the previous 
chapter, proved to be the essence of personality, must be regarded 
as its seed also. 

Since finite persons are the eternal creation of the Infinite Per- 
son, the primitive potency which constiututes the original nucleus of 
human personality is the imparted potency of the Infinite Person, 
which functions as a finite pole of the Infinite Ellipse in Divine Per- 
sonality or a CENTER OF CAUSALITY, grounded in the FINAL 
CAUSE and thereby capacitated to evolve as a copy of the Infinite 
Pattern. 

Experimental psychology has demonstrated beyond successful 
contradiction that every mental process has a physical accompaniment, 
therefore, that man is and must be a UNIT. Psycho -physical paral- 

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lelism justifies James in hU designation of Psychology as a physical 
science, but this does not debar Metaphysics; instead, it demands 
Metaphysics because the only tenable explanation of physco- physical 
parallelism is ultimately based upon an idealistic view of material 
phenomena. 

Just as the physical universe is merely a manifestation of the 
Infinite Person, the physical organism is the phenomenal phase of 
the finite person. The relation in both instances is that of vital 
UNITY but not IDENTITY. The primal potency essentially 
transcends the physical phenomena in which it is Immanent. Since 
causality is a characteristic of transcendence, the function of the 
phenomenal must be instrumental. 

While the physical organism is purely the instrument of the im- 
manent potency, the reflexes which are rooted in its structure con- 
stitute the original objective upon which the sovereign self reacts. 
It is thoroughly legitimate, therefore, to regard personality as evolved 
BY, though not OUT OF 

THE INSTINCTS or NATIVE REACTIONS. 

They are, in every instance, characterized by two qualities: 
FIRST — they are active tendencies; and, SECOND — they are innate 
or wholly unlearned. They are there to begin with; indeed, they 
constitute the beginning. The energy of the Primal Potency is exerted 
IN them as well as ON them. So while a person is more than a mere 
combination of instincts, being this and in addition an almost infinitely 
complex modification of the original combination, he is nevertheless 
only a combination of instincts to begin with and to the end an 
organism grounded in them, so they not only constitute the beginning 
itself, but the prophecy of the whole process. The Pedagogics of 
Personality, then, as a science, consists of the apprehension of the 
nature and function of the native reactions, their organization and de- 
velopment as acquired reactions in the evolution of intelligence and 
the formation of habits; the discovery of the subject as an object by 
introspection; the discrimination of the selves and the final evolution 
and supremacy of the True Self 

James (Talks to Teachers) discusses, without classifying, and 
merely as representative, the following native reactions: Fear, Love, 
Curiosity, Imitation, Emulation, Ambition (including Pugnacity and 
Pride), Ownership and Constructiveness. 

Kirkpatrick (Fundamentals of Child Study) regards the existence 
of Instincts as due to their usefulness, hence, classifies them on the 
basis of their ENDS as follows: Individualistic or Self- preservative 
(including Feeding, Fearing and Fighting), Parental, Group or Social, 
Adaptive (including Imitation, play and Curiosity) .regulative (in- 
cluding Morality and Religion), The Resultant and Miscellaneous 
(including the tendency to collect objects of various kinds and to 
enjoy their ownership; the tendency to construct or destroy and the 
pleasure of being a power or a cause; the tendency to express mental 
states to others of the species and to take pleasure in such expres- 
sion; the tendency to adornment and the making of beautiful things, 
and the aesthetic pleasure of contemplating such objects). 

Mark (The Unfolding of Personality), merely for convenience, 
follows the lines which psychology itself suggests and divides man's 
instinctive tendencies into three groups according as the element of 
feeling, acting and knowing predominate. On this basis we have 
the unlearned reactions which are little more than modes or ways 
of behaving; those which have large characteristic accompaniments 
of feeling; and those which seem to have the gaining of knowledge 
as their most direct aim. 

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Both Mark and Kirkpatrick conserve the UNITY of the nucleus in 
the idea of AIM or END which constitutes the basis of their clag- 
siflcation. Every instinctive tendency is a tendency of the entire 
nucleus, which functions as a unity, but in each individual instance 
they modify a given phase or aspect of the nucleus. The primitive 
potency, therefore, is not only inherent energy, hence, functions as 
the master impulse of LIFE itself, but is permeated with PURPOSE. 
Whether the physical organism be regarded merely as an evolution 
and the instincts as no more than 'Race Habits," which in a measure 
they undoubtedly are, or the primal potency as a unit, simply en- 
dowed by the impartation of the Infinite Potency, with definite tend- 
encies which may be regarded as manifestations of design, the 
fundamental fact remains that the Instincts or native reactions func- 
tion in definite directions and, with the accuracy of an unfailing law, 
effect definite results in the unfolding of personality. 

What we are to keep definitely in mind then as we follow the 
phenomena of the unfolding personality is that the whole is an active 
process and is the function of a unit — mind and body or psycho- 
physical organism; that the initial impulse alone is automatic and yet 
spontaneity persists through all the acquired reactions and is fun- 
damental in the phenomena; that the unity and identity of the 
unfolding personality is grounded in the subject of the primal potency 
which functions in every phase of the phenomena; in short, that 
personality itself is an organism, hence, not only VITAL but de- 
terminative in the process of its development. 

INSTINCTIVE MOTOR TENDENCIES. 
The "organs of behaviour" which constitute the "sensori- motor 
system" are the nerves and muscles. The three -fold phase of its 
function, with relation to intelligence, is usually referred to as its 
three "levels." The lowest of these is the physiological mechanism 
of all purely reflex actions. These are simple and automatic. The 
second level is the seat of those co-ordinations which are so deeply 
ingrained as to have become instinctive. 

The third, which is the most characteristic portion of man's 
sensori- motor system, is the brain mass, rising above the lower 
brain centers of the second level. "It is hardly possible," says Pro- 
fessor Mark, "to exaggerate the importance of the co-ordinations of 
impression and response which takes place at this highest or third 
level. This higher brain betokens the child's capacity for mental 
development; and it is this which to so large an extent presents him 
to us for the making." 

Since the third level or higher brain is the physiological seat of 
acquired behaviour, the mechanism of instinct must be provided by the 
two lower levels. This is not to say that instinct is pure automatism 
or that it precludes the possibility of consciousness. And yet the 
earliest actions cannot be guided by consciousness; for such guidance 
would imply still earlier experience in the light of which they were 
in part performed. The first reaction, then, is purely automatic, be- 
cause it is in no way guided by consciousness, that is, in no way 
influenced by physiological modifications effected by previous reac- 
tions. All reactions following the first reaction, however, fall short 
in their automatic character because both their intensity and direc- 
tion is partly determined by previous experience. And yet, as Mc- 
Dougal says in his "Social Psychology," "Take away these instinctive 
dispositions with their powerful impulses, and the organism would 
become incapable of activity of any kind; it would lie inert and mo- 
tionless like a wonderful clock, whose spring had been removed, or a 
steam engine whose fires had been drawn. These impulses are the 

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mental forces that maintain and shape all the life of individuals and 
societies, and In them •vre are confronted with the central mystery 
of life and mind and will." 

Concerning the nature of the instinctive tendencies, it may be said 
that they are impelled by the innate imperative of the psycho- physical 
organism. The spontaneous tendency of an infant is to set to work 
upon any object that is placed between the lips or gums. He not 
only responds automatically but expresses the tingling impulse to 
act by even seeking occasion for it in some form of appropriate 
stimulus. The child from the first can grasp and his fingers seem 
to itch, as it were, for a chance to do it. "This," as Professor Mark 
says, "is part of the way he is alive, and it is no mild form of repres- 
sion when he finds, as he sometimes does, that he is alive in one way 
and that those about him want him to be alive in some wholly dif- 
ferent way." Crying, creeping, climbing, and even walking, in its 
inception, are instinctive. 

Such tendencies to behave as these are the raw material out of 
which, by the aid of experience, as we shall see, the larger behaviours 
of life are built up. While the accompaniment of consciousness dif- 
ferentiates these motor tendencies from the pure reflexes like sneezing 
and coughing, they are not premeditated reactions. All that is es- 
sential is sense contact or impression and sufficient strength of 
muscle to respond. Undoubtedly the foundations of practicality are thus 
laid in the very organism. It is only when these essentials are pro- 
vided for, that the self is free to acquire new experience and to deal, 
as it has to do, with an ever widening and more complex environment. 

Instinctive tendencies to serviceable behaviour as compared with 
the knowledge and emotional experiences are rooted and grounded 
in the master impulse of life itself. The organism itself tends to 
activity. The unfolding child must behave. Not only so, but the 
characteristic structure of an organism implies a tendency to behave 
In ways that are in harmony with that structure. "We must, there- 
fore," as Professor Mark says, "start with the view of the child's 
instinctive behaviour as the unfolding of his native energies as a 
living being; whether manifested in a general tendency to be active, 
or in such specific tendencies as are more commonly spoken of as 
instincts (Unfolding of Personality, page 56)." 

INSTINCTIVE MENTAL TENDENCIES. 
Native spontaneity is not limited to the motor tendencies of the 
Physical organism. There are unlearned reactions of the primal 
potency itself upon environment which tend directly to give knowledge 
of the environment. Since these do not depend upon previous ex- 
perience, although they are connected with the sensori- motor system, 
and are purely intellectual in character, they are not only instincts 
but must constitute the very germ or original nucleus of the mind 
itself. 

In other words, there are not only, as we shall see when we come 
to the evolution of intelligence, Intellectual results from the instinctive 
reactions a^ the sensori- motor system, but parallel with them, purely 
instinctive intellectual tendencies. It could not be otherwise because 
of the unity in the psycho- physical organism. The nucleus, it must 
be remembered, is not only material, it Is mental, that is psycho- 
physical. Designating the psychical aspect as the MIND, it may be 
affirmed that it is spontaneously active. This is clearly Implied in 
the massive higher brain. Here we have, as we shall see later, both 
the object and the instrument of Its activity. 

All this is just another way of reaffirming the primacy of the 
capacity to KNOW. It is original in the nucleus of human personal - 

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Ity. The beginning impulse in the pedagogics of Personality is the 
instinctive desire to KNOW. It is not only primal in priority but 
primitive in potency as the constructive agent of the intellect. Every 
mental function is an unlearned reaction of the primal potency or 
capacity to know. Professor Mark puts it very tersely as follows: 
"Instinctively, from the mere fact that he possesses a mind, aided, 
of course, by the delicacy and physical discriminativeness of the 
organs of sense, the child discriminates experience from experience; 
he interprets experience by experience — the new by the old; he asso- 
ciates experience with experience." In other words, our acquired 
reactions never attain a level at which they are independent of the 
mental reactions which are purely native tendencies. 

Attention, for instance, regardless of its intimate and vital rela- 
tions to habit and association, is a purely primitive tendency. To 
say the least, it may be safely aflBrmed that attention of the voluntary 
type never does, because it cannot, counteract all original tendency. 
In other words, interests, practically determinative in attention, are 
not created. They are, at least, the outgrowth of instinctive ten- 
dencies. This is obvious when we remember that attention is but 
another name for the selective capacity of the mind whereby "any- 
thing whatsoever becomes definite, and is distinguished from the 
rest of the world of objects." The focus of consciousness is essential 
to experience. Certainly it is not acquired, but rather constitutes the 
very genius of the stream itself. 

Retention parallels attention in its primacy. It is not only an. 
original capacity but essential to the function of intelligence. The 
preservation of percepts depends upon it. What gets into conscious- 
ness through attention is caught up and carried forward by retention. 
In other words, the identity of the knowing or attending subject is 
guaranteed by the native capacity to retain and recall what comes to 
consciousness in the knowing process. Memory and attention are^ 
therefore, the very stuff of which the mind is made, hence must be 
regarded as INNATE or INSTINCTIVE. 

Discrimination, assimilation, apperception and association are all, 
equally unlearned or acquired intellectual capacities. They are rather 
primitive aspects of attention and memory. Mental life or intelectual 
experience depends upon them. For instance, one need not, indeed 
cannot, be taught to apperceive. It is the very nature of the mind to 
summon all the past to the task of interpreting the new. The same 
is true in relating the new to the old. The capacity to make the 
connection and make it properly is wholly unlearned. It is there as 
a part of the very genius of the original nucleus. 

The innate capacity to function intellectually, therefore, compre- 
hends every phase of mental phenomena. Not one of the elements 
is acquired. Indeed they are never developed, much less created by 
experience. Dr. James and others have demonstrated thoroughly 
that memory, for instance — the native capacity to retain and recall — 
can never be improved. Such scientific tests as these, more than any 
other factor, served to hasten the downfall of "Faculty Psychology" 
by digging away the foundation of "Formal Discipline." The abso- 
lutely original tendencies of the MIND or psychical phase of the 
psycho- physical organism, constitute the very warp into which the 
woof of experience is woven. They underlie and make possible the 
highest reaches of the mind in the rich assimilations and constructive 
associations, such as "the discovery of laws or principles; the com- 
position of works of literature and art; the devising of great practical 
schemes of reform, of government, commerce, inventions;" in short, 
aU the arts and sciences of modern culture. 

The innateness of intellectual processes does not, however, pre- 

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elude bodily conditions. It must be remembered that intellectual 
processes are, on account of the unity of the original nucleus, psycho- 
physical phenomena. Therefore, it is not only correct but necessary 
to ground memory, attention, association and the other mental 
functions which constitute intellectual life, as James and others do, 
in a neural base. 

INSTINCTIVE EMOTIONAL TENDENCIES. 

The functions which constitute experience are all characterized 
by the quality of pleasureableness or painfulness, called FEELING. 
The emotional element is, therefore, not only an invariable accom- 
paniment, but that phase of response which constitutes consciousness 
itself. What McDougal and others have in mind when they contend 
that consciousness is an essential accomplishment of all instinctive 
tendencies is evidently the "awareness" of FEELING which they 
occasion. 

Aside, however, from the emotional accompaniment of the in- 
stinctive motor and mental tendencies, there are instinctive tendencies 
which seem to have feeling as their direct function. Of course, even 
these have a motor and a mental side, but the feeling phase is 
fundamental. What we are contending is that while the feeling 
process itself is innate and unlearned, the very tendency to feel is 
also innate or native to the organism. The brief mention of a few 
of the representative emotions will serve to show this. 

Take FEAR, for instance. Its universality is unquestioned and 
its innateness as a phase of the Individualistic Instinct is evident. 
It manifests itself in the terror which the unaccustomed or the strange, 
6uch as noises, darkness and solitude effect in an infant. Reason 
has little to do with it, for a child suffers the keenest agony of 
terror again when he practically KNOWS that he is safe from harm. 

Anger, Affection, Surprise, Wonder, Awe, Reverence, Sympathy, 
are all instinctive expressions of feeling. It is customary to refer 
to them as definite emotions, but they are in reality only phases or 
aspects of the one instinctive tendency to FEEL or function in the 
awareness or CONSCIOUSNESS of relation to environment. As with 
fear, so with these and every other phase of feeling, the capacity is 
innate in the organism. The respective form of emotion is not only 
possible but, under the proper stimulus, inevitable. 

The emotions are thus not only instinctive, but in no small 
measure determinative in the motor and mental tendencies of the 
psycho -physical organism. The evidence is conclusive that there is 
some innate connection between the unpleasantness of experiences 
and the inhibition of movements tending to their repetition, likewise 
between pleasant experiences and the efforts we make for their 
repetition. This fact throws a flood of light on the selective agent 
in the organization of experience. Emotional instincts determine the 
general course of acquired behaviour just as motor tendencies de- 
termine the direction of the instinctive behaviour. The function of the 
feelings seems to be the correlation of the instinctive tendencies to 
behaviour, hence, serve as a sort of selective agent of the primal 
potency. 

This intimate connection between feeling and behaviour is in- 
herent in the very structure of our being. As Professor Mark says, 
quoting from Ribot, "Every primary emotion is an intimate com- 
plexus expressing directly the constitution of the individual; the 
emotions are organized manifestations of the life of the feelings; they 
are the reactions of the individual on everything which touches the 
course of his life (Unfolding of Personality, page 104)." Life, there- 
fore, essentially expresses itself in the function of feeling, hence, in 
the unity of the original nucleus of human personality, the primal 

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potency provides the motive force of ttie tendencies to behaviour and 
the intellectual impulses, in the emotional instincts. 

THE EVOLUTION OF INTELLIGENCE. 
Man, according to James (Talks to Teachers, page 38) is "an 
organism for reacting on impressions," and "his mind is there to help 
determine his reactions." Since the native reactions are pre- 
determined by the instinctive tendencies, it is the acquired reactions 
that the mind determines. The inference is clear, then, that the 
process of acquiring reactions as the development of the native reac- 
tions is also the process by which the mind develops, and as the mind 
is but another name for the capacity to KNOW, conscious intelligence 
is evolved in experience and functions as the unfolding mental self 
which connects up the psychical and physical mechanism of acquired 
reactions. 

The field of an infant's consciousness, soon to become 'a fairy 
land of new experiences, i.s at first half -formed, bpa-ren desert, with 
only an occasional rock of bodily pain or oasis of comfort clearly dis- 
cernible " The little stranger is merely a wonderful mechanism 
whose parts are not all finished or connected, beginning to feel and 
become conscious of what he does. Action essentially precedes con- 
sciousness, for consciousness is primarily the feeling or emotional 
effect of the action. 

In this elementary and rudamentary form it is doubtless no more 
than a mass of muscular sensations. Baldwin (Story of the Mind, 
page 76) thinks these may be experienced even before birth, indeed 
from the time life exists. Of course this, as indeed the mental life 
of the human infant as a whole, is largely a conjecture, since all our 
inferences are introspective deductions. Infant conduct cannot be 
correctly translated in terms of adult conduct and experience because 
every adult sensation has a meaning; it is related to and calls up 
sensations like it or associated with it in past experience. To the 
infant in those early hours of its life there is no past experience, and 
even when its movements are significant, the various sensations are 
not related to each other but merely each to its appropriate, separate 
reflex. 

Reasoning, however, from general principles, we may aflSrm with 
some assurance what is not in the baby's mind. Scientific experiment 
has demonstrated that the greater part of the cortex of the brain 
(which there is good reason to believe is the physiological seat of 
consciousness) is not active during the first three months of life, hence 
it is evident that there is very little unified consciousness during this 
period; but in the second quarter, when movement becomes complex, 
so that the stimulations of one sense are connected with those of 
another, conscious intelligence doubtless dawns so that every ex- 
perience now becomes associated with others like it or contiguous 
to it. Every sensation soon has a background of general bodily sensa- 
tion and a fringe of past sensations. As consciousness thus becomes 
unified and related, it begins to assume its rightful place as general 
director of affairs, and chooses that certain agreeable experiences shall 
be continued or repeated, and a little later exercises some influence 
in determining how this shall be done. 

All this means that MEMORY and ATTENTION begin to function 
with the complex combinations of the simple reflexes as they are 
effected by the instinctive tendencies. This is the process by which 
the semi-conscious and utterly helpless babe acquires a definite and 
unified consciousness, and gradually takes possession of his develop- 
ing self. As Kirkpatrick says (Fundamentals of Child Study, page 
72), "The functioning of reflex and instinctive mechanism that are 

(46) 



PERFECT at birth, and other mechanisms after they become perfect, 
has little influence on the continuous self. The process of PERFECT- 
ING mechanisms, developing them for new purposes, and combining 
them in various ways, are the chief exciters of conscious activity, and 
the means by which the mental self grows. Every new experience 
illuminates and enlarges the field of consciousness, and extends the 
control of the growing self." 

The plasticity of the human infant is, therefore, a prophecy of 
his intelligence. The necessity for connecting up the organized brain 
mass provides the occasion for the new combinations and co- 
ordinations which function in the evolution of intelligence. But for 
this the adult human would be as the lower animals— a creature of 
impulse and so-called "blind instinct." 

The best authorities are agreed that these new combinations 
which function in the unfolding of intelligence are effected in three 
ways. Just as the reflexes and more simple of the complex reactions 
are determined by the instinctive tendencies, so the acquired reac- 
tions are determined by connections effected by the spontaneous 
impulse to general movement, that is, the life impulse to be active. 
It finds expression in the spontaneous activity of all the muscles. An 
infant will move every part of the body in response to any strong 
stimulus. Any one who has observed a normal babe will notice that 
he twists, turns and calls into action practically all his muscles. He 
will even quiver with fear or spring up and down with delight. 

Most of these general or spontaneous movements are wasted 
energy, but some of them, especially when combined with special 
instinctive or reflex movements, incidentally result in pleasurable 
e:^perience and effort to repeat them. This, however, is the problem 
of all problems for the unfolding infant. A single experience does 
not serve to effect its repetition in detail. Such improvements must be 
learned, and this is the work of growing intelligence. How to effect 
the accidental combination, to so co-ordinate the muscles, the mind 
and the nerve connections that the result shall be attained— this is 
the stimulus to the new connection. 

The marked feature of the infant's attempts is the large number 
of useless and inaccurate movements made before success is attained 
and experience gained. It is therefore quite properly called "THE 
TRIAL AND SUCCESS METHOD OF LEARNING." 

Another means by which mechanisms for obtaining ends are de- 
veloped is IMITATION. When a child sees an interesting movement 
or hears an interesting sound, he has not only a tendency to move all 
his muscles, but a strong special tendency to move the muscles nec- 
essary to reproduce the perceived movement or sound. In this way 
he soon perfects the mechanism for making many movements that 
are useful to others and which will ultimately be useful to him. 
Speech is acquired in this way, although the trial and success method 
Is perhaps involved, but it is in the main by imitation. 

The third and highest of all is the method of learning by means 
of the UNDERSTANDING or reason. Since this is limited to later 
development it is merely mentioned here. Its function, in the main, 
is the construction of new mechanisms and reactions of thought as 
well as movement out of other reactions already in hand. 

These three methods of learning are used by both adults and 
children in attaining ends by new means. The trial and success 
method is especially effective in perfecting the simpler mechanisms of 
actions; the imitation method in connecting elementary movements 
with each other, while the method of understanding or reasoning is 
used in learning to co-ordinate several processes for the purpose of 
accomplishing one end. 

(47) 



Thus conscious intelligence is developed by receiving and relat- 
ing the sensations produced by reflex and instinctive tendencies. 
Since each new instinct modifies action, and since instinctive 
tendencies are the basis of interest, conscious intelligence is greatly 
influenced by mechanical and instinctive intelligence long after the 
early days of infantile responsibility are past. 

As conscious intelligence develops, it chooses, from the various 
possibilities presented to it by results of previous action, those objects 
and acts that are most pleasing. In every form of repeated action, 
however, conscious intelligence soon becomes more or less unneces- 
sary because of the development of the unconscious intelligence of 
HABIT. The chief difference between the intellect of the child and 
that of the man, therefore, is that the child's actions are controlled 
largely by unconscious instinctive impulses and interests, and the 
man's by unconscious habitual reactions and interests. The conscious 
intelligence of the man is not essentially different from that of the 
child, except that the extent of its activity is greater because of 
other instinctive and developed interests. 

The factors which function in the evolution of Intelligence, there- 
fore, are instinctive tendencies and experience. The former includes 
the specific tendencies to behaviour, with their mental and emotional 
accompaniments; and the latter includes environment which provokes 
reaction and the mental phenomena involved therein. This results 
in the "Stream of Consciousness" which constitutes the field of 
introspection and leads to 

THE DISCOVERY OF THE SUBJECT. 

The unquestioned source of an infant's earliest interest is move- 
ment. Practically parallel with it is the pleasure. pain producing 
capacity. Therefore, the mind is born in the pain- movement- pleasure 
consciousness of the infant, projected in the nurse or the mother, as 
the objective upon which he first intelligently reacts. 

Reaction soon results in a three- fold discovery: First — persons 
are differentiated from things as the incarnation of the pain- move- 
ment- pleasure capacity; Second — persons are differentiated fr*om 
each other by the moods of the pain or the pleasure they occasion; 
and Third — both the option and the capacity are the function of 
AGENCY. 

In the effort to fathom the mystery of the option in the projected 
agency, imitation converts it into a subjective attribute and the child 
begins to feel himself an agent. This new consciousness is the faint 
flicker of self- consciousness. Experiment and experience in gratify- 
ing desires at the hands of others develops it into the capacity to 
differentiate one character from another as a sort of habitual center 
or source of the agency. 

Imitation again functions in subjective appropriation. The sub- 
jective sense of agency assimilates the characteristics of others as 
imitation interprets them, and thus, step by step, the consciousness 
of agency becomes the consciousness of a self or agency with all the 
attributes manifested by others in social intercourse. Having thus 
discovered the self as a subject -object, the problem at once arises — 
WHAT IS IT? 

THE DISCRIMINATION OF THE SELVES. 
The subject -object of self-consciousness is originally complex and 
chaotic. Like the Pit of the New York Stock Exchange — Pandemon- 
ium prevails. Selfhood s^ems a sort of museum in which all sorts 
of selves subsist. There is the courageous self and the cowardly self; 
the sordid self and the sacrificial self; the happy self and the unhappy 

(48) 



self; the good self and the bad self, in short — selves "ad infinitum," 
antithetic, contending, struggling, striving and alternately attaining 
the ascendency. 

The assertion of these selves is audacious. They are not to b« 
ignored or repudiated. They must be reckoned with. Life radiates 
from them as shifting habitual centers. One is again and again con- 
vinced by the transition that he has actually become another person. 
The self of the shop or the study is not the self of the social circle or 
the religious service. Anticipation is hazardous, too, for one can 
never tell just the equilibrium of his selfhood. In the turmoil and 
strife of the subjective field, ever and anon some submerged self will 
suddenly rise to the surface and seize the scepter for the time being 
in spite of previous plans or present effort. 

This tangle is perplexing, but reflection straightens it out. Self- 
consciousness is the consciousness of self- identity. Chaos in the 
subject is not due, therefore, to the presence of an infinite number 
of separate selves, but the various aspects or moods of the same self. 

Persistent and penetrating introspection also results in the dis- 
covery of the discriminating subject or "Self of the Selves" in the 
midst of these discriminated aspects, organizing them and thus bring- 
ing order out of chaos by giving unity, coherence and character to the 
Inner life. 

THE TRUE SELF. 

This "Self of Selves" is the PRIMAL POTENCY which functions 
as the sovereign subject or True Self. Buckham (Personality and 
the Christian Ideal) characterizes it as: 

1. The discriminator among the selves, pronouncing this self or 
state of self bad and that good, this worthy and that unworthy. 

2_ The self that aspires, that moves toward attainment, control- 
ling and organizing the self- states and constantly lifting the total 
self to to a higher level. 

3. The transcendent worth of all existence — the standard and 
test of all values, compared with which sense values shrivel, and 
yet in the light of which the sensation world gets its only true and 
proper value. 

4. That universality which partakes of the nature of the Eternal 
Self — recognized in all philosophies as the supreme significance of 
human existence, and as such, part of, or vitally related to, the Divine. 

5. Unselfishness that is greatest, and yet least individualistic — 
ME and yet not MINE — baffling all efforts to monopolize as a par- 
ticular possession because when thus selfishly subjected it disappears 
and only the empirical self remains. 

By the limitations of its very genius, the True Self is merely the 
constructive potency of a possible person. Since personality is in its 
last analysis a"BECOMING" rather than a being, the True Self 
must be regarded as the PROPULSION of the process. This magnifies, 
however, rather than minimizes it. On the one hand it provides the 
inspiration of the UNATTAINED and on the other hand it invests 
humanity with the regal dignity of divinity. If the meanest as well 
as the best of men have the capacity of personality — all alike deserve 
appreciation and the utmost effort to provoke self-realization in them. 

THE CONSERVATION OF CHARACTER. 
While the True Self is merely a POTENCY and Personality is 
more a PROCESS than a PRODUCT, it is, nevertheless, preserved 
in CHARACTER, that is. Character is the abiding structure of Person- 
ality. 

(49) 



Character, then, is not to De ccmfounded with Disposition or 
Temperament. They are often used interchangeably, but they are 
not synonyms. While character is wrought out in the forge of life, 
disposition is the ready made heritage transmitted from parent to 
child as the racial bequest of the individual. It may, and in a 
measure, must be, utilized in the culture of character, but it is not 
character. 

The very term "Character" connotes the stress and strain of 
struggle, and contending forces are the essential presupposition of a 
struggle. More real and momentous than any battle fought on gory 
field with bullets and bayonets, is the silent struggle for character, 
in which the Primal Potency wrests the sovereignty of the Selfhood 
from the allied propensities of 

THE EMPIRICAL SELF. 

To properly understand the conservation of character in the 
Pedagogics of Personality, selfhood must be regarded, not as a sphere 
or circle, but as an ELLIPSE of which the TRUE SELF is one POLE 
and the EMPIRICAL SELF is the other POLE. 

While the True Self is the Self of the Selves, that is, the mag- 
netic center of the subject -object in self- consciousness, the Empirical 
Self is a real self or Pole in the ellipse of Personality, in the sense 
that it is what Professor William James calls "an habitual center of 
personal energy." In his definition of Conversion he says (Varieties 
of Religious Experience, page 196) "Let us, in speaking of the hot 
place in a man's consciousness, the group of ideas to which he devotes 
himself, and from which he works, call it the habitual center of his 
personal energy. It makes a great difference to a man whether one 
set of his ideas, or another, be the center of his energy; and it makes 
a great difference, as regards any set of ideas which he may possess, 
whether they become central or remain peripheral in him. To say 
that a man is converted, means, in these terms, that religious ideas, 
previously peripheral in his consciousness, now take a central place, 
and that religious aims form the habitual center of his energy." 

The empirical self, then, is but another name for the habitual 
center of personal energy in consciousness, which functions as the 
antithesis of the Primal Potency or True Self. Buckham's analysis 
(Personality and the Christian Ideal) is so thorough that the citation 
of its substance is deemed sufficient to indicate its function in the 
Pedagogics of Personality. He characterizes the Empirical Self as: 

1. A racial product, hence, essentially cosmic, animal and evolu- 
tionary in origin, culminating in the individual man as the crown and 
epitome of the whole long and wonderful process. "As an empirical 
self, each human being is a distinct race- product, individuated by 
the particular branch of the racial trunk of which he is the latest 
bud. The life of the whole tree, and of the soil from which it springs, 
thus flows through each emerging selfhood." 

2. Comprehending the subliminal self, with its deep-rooted in- 
stincts, habits, unconscious and subconscious reactions that have been 
acquired and transmitted through long generations of adjustment to 
environment, whereby the individual is enabled to carry on his life 
functions easily, through the subtle operation of long-stored-up 
experience. 

3. Physiological, hence, rooted and grounded in the nervous 
organism. Any disturbance of this delicate machinery, therefore, re- 
sults in painful disintegrations in the empirical self. FEAR, for 
instance, is the tyrant of the empirical self. "The sensuous imagina- 
tion becomes abnormally stimulated and the mind is haunted with 
images and apprehensions which weaken and paralyze all its powers. 

(50) 



Humanity is burdened and harrassed by an accumulation of these 
fears and forebodings in the forms of superstitions which have come 
down from generation to generation and which all the combined 
light of science, philosophy and religion has not yet succeeded in 
dissipating." 

4. The self of MOODS, hence, the plaything of circumstances 
and environment. "When the sun shines it basks and battens in the 
glow; when the sky is dark and the wind is chill it shivers and suc- 
cumbs to the iron and gray of untoward circumstances." 

5. While the True Self is not cold and impassive, a mere truth- 
discovering, duty -demanding self, the empirical self is differentiated 
from it as the FEELING SELF. The distinction is not in the pres- 
ence or absence of feeling, but in its source and significance. Truth 
begets inspiration, duty happines, and love emotion, but these reac- 
tions are more than mere feeling. The source of pure feeling is sen- 
sation, that is, feeling is from without, rather than from within. 
Inspiration, happiness and love, on the other hand, are personal rather 
than sensuous both in source and subjective phenomena. Thus while 
the True Self feels, its mastery is such that it sometimes functions in 
and deepest and strongest emotions by opposition to and overcoming of 
physical feeling. Not so with the empirical self. It is not only sub- 
ject to but the subject OF physical feeling, hence, appropriately called 
THE FEELING SELF. 

THE ASCENDENCY OF THE TRUE SELF. 
Normal development enthrones the rational self, but the racial 
self refuses to be either executed or banished from selfhood. No 
matter how thoroughly subdued, it lingers within the shadows of sub- 
consciousness like a plotting pretender seeking to incite sedition. 
The conventionalities of society are swept to the winds by such horrors 
as the Galveston Flood and the San Francisco Fire so that cultured 
men and refined women revert to the primitive savage. 

The original, unorganized empirical self is, however, UNMORAL 
rather than immoral. The best authorities in ethics are agreed that 
the native reactions and normal desires of the physical organism 
are morally neutral. They BECOME moral or immoral according to 
the action of the Will upon them. Buckham well says: "To become 
a person does not involve ceasing to be a man." The True Self be- 
comes regnant, not by trampling upon the Sense Self, but ruling it. 
Into its unmoral, unregulated, purposeless world of sense, must be 
introduced order, harmony, end- serving. It is a realm to be subdued, 
not devastated; appropriated, not laid waste." 

Although the empirical self is originally unmoral, it becomes, if 
indulged, outrageously immoral by generating, what Buckham calls 
an "Anti-Self." Yielding to empirical inclinations for the mere 
gratification of the inclination begets an Anti-Self which lives and 
grows by repeated indulgence. It is the bitter antagonist of the 
True Self and stubbornly contests every inch of the ground covered 
in the Pedadogics of Personality. 

SELF- ORGANIZATION. 

The Divine impartation which constitutes the potential person 
begins its Infinite BECOMING by a "Birth from ABOVE." One thus 
"Born AGAIN," like the "Prodigal Son," "Comes to HIMSELF.." This 
new self, hitherto lying dormant within the old self, is the REAL 
or TRUE Self, now, for the first time, actually alive, active and free. 

This organic adjustment is, in theological terminology, CON- 
VERSION. Under the impact of Divine Energy, the True Self, 
hitherto peripheral, becomes the habitual center of personal energy. 

(51) 



In the oscillation of the selfhood -ellipse (See figure — Pedagogics of 
Personality) the poles are transposed. The potential person rises to 
the FOCUS and the empirical-anti--self sinks into subconsciousness. 

A submerged Anti-Self is by no means an annihilated Anti-Self. 
It not only lives, but ionss for its old life of ascendent authority. 
Consequently there is constant tension and tortion in the selfhood- 
ellipse. This zig-zag oscillation of the ellipse alternately swinging 
the poles into the focus is what James called the "Divided Self." 
Paul graphically describes it in his Epistle to the Romans (7:14ff). 
He uses the same personal pronoun throughout, but its bi- polarity is 
clear. "For what 'I' do T know not; for not what T would, that do 
T practice, but what 'I' (The True Self) hate, that T would not do, 
that 'V do, it is no more T (The True Self) that do it but SIN (The 
Anti-Self) which dwelleth in me." 

Conversion only potentially unifies the disorganized selfhood. 
The ii9possibility of objective unification of the subjective field is the 
one thing that makes personality possible. It cannot be bestowed. 
It must be WROUGHT by the exertion of the energy imparted when 
the Divine Impact swept the submerged and slumbering self to the 
surface of selfhood. The task of the new life is the fixing of the new 
center of personal energy in the focus so that the possible center be- 
comes the actual center. The process is essentially progressive, that 
is PEDAGOGICAL, hence, aptly termed The Pedagogics of Per- 
sonality. 

There are three vital points -of- view from which it must be sur- 
veyed if it be comprehended. There is, first of all, the positive phase, 
which may be denominated 

STIMULATION. 

The ascendency of the PRO -PERSON, as the Pole of the True 
Self, may be called, can be maintained only by proper stimulation, and 
proper stimulation is essentially a compound of FOOD or NUTRITION 
and FUNCTION or EXERCISE. The two amalgamate into unity, 
however, for the function of personality is its food, that is, it feeds 
or persists through the functional exertion of its energy. The be- 
coming process of Impartation, appropriation and application is 
wrought out by ATTENTION — the Supreme Self, as the embodiment 
of the Ideal, being the FOCUS. In other words, choice functioning 
in Ideal substitution, provides the fixing potency in the Pedagogics of 
Personality. 

All this is but another way of saying that personality subsists, 
evolves and finds satisfaction in the exertion of its propulsive potency. 
The compound nutrition of FOOD and EXERCISE consists in the 
stimulation and inspiration of those factors in the stream of conscious- 
ness which attract it to and hold it in the focus and thereby elicit 
reaction in the exertion of its energy as choice and volition. 

The culture of personality is, then, a mere matter of proper en- 
vironment, projected ideals and positive impulses in the synthesis of 
which the True Self finds satisfaction in the functions of self-realiza- 
tion. 

The second point- of- view is the negative phase of the process, 
which it seems fitting to designate 

STARVATION. 

The stimulation of the True Self includes the starvation of the 
Anti-Self and the subjection of the empirical self in which it subsists. 
Both poles cannot function as habitual centers at the same time. If 
one be in the focus the other must be in subconsciousness. The fixa- 
tion of the True Self in the focus is effected, therefore, as truly by 

(52) 



weakening of the focal pull of the empirical pole as by strengthening 
the focal pull of the pro- person. 

The psychological principle involved in this phenomena is primal 
in the 'Sensori Motor Arc." The stimulation of the True Self is 
effected by the adequate expression of those impulses which the 
stream of consciousness pours into the pro- pole of Personality. Con- 
versely, the enervation of the Anti Self is effected by the inhibition 
of those impulses which the stream of consciousness pours into the 
anti-pole of Personality. 

We are now within the "Holy of Holies" of Personality. Stimula- 
tion by Starvation; Expression is by Repression; Development is by 
death. In other words, Self- Sacrifice is the process of Self- Realiza- 
tion. This is the Paradox of Personality, the deepest mystery in the 
evolution of that regality which may be called 'The KINGSHIP of 
Self- Control." The INHIBITION of the Anti- Self is the EXPRES- 
SION of the PRO -SELF. The key to the Pedagogics of Personality, 
then, is the BI-POLARITY of the Selfhood -Ellipse. 

This key was given to humanity by the pre-eminent Person, the 
Infinite Ideal — Jesus Christ — Son of Man and Son of God. His Par- 
adoxes are but a jumble of words, a meaningless riddle, without it; 
but with it, they become the most profound philosophy ever uttered. 
Take, for instance, the marvelous passage (John 12:24-26), "He that 
loveth his LIFE (Anti- Self) shall lose it (Pro- Self); and he that 
hateth his life (anti- self) in this world shall keep it (Pro- Self) unto 
life eternal (ultimate self-realization)." Another passage, even more 
striking, was called forth by Peter's Confession (Matt. 16:21-26), "If 
any man will come after me let him deny (APARNEESASTHO — 
renounce — ignore, DENY, inhibit or Starve by disuse) himself (anti- 
self) and take up his cross and follow me. For whosoever will 
save (fix in the focus by feeding — functioning) his life (anti- self) 
shall lose (doom to mere potentiality and thus prevent realization) it 
(the True Self, functioning in Personality) and whosoever will lose 
(banish from the focus and doom to death by non- gratification) his 
life (anti- self) for my sake (by the process of Christ centered atten- 
tion and consequent Christ assimilation) shall find it (attain ultimate 
self-realization.) For what is a man profited if he shall gain the 
whole world (exhaust the capacities of the anti- self in sensual in- 
dulence) and lose his own soul (eternally vitiate potential person- 
ality) ?" ' 

The third point- of- view is the product of the process, which may 
be termed 

SELF-REALIZATION. 

We have already seen that character is the abiding structure of 
Personality. It may be also regarded as the self- charged dynamic of 
personality. The energy of the True Self generated by the com- 
plementary stimulation of the Pro -Person and the starvation of the 
anti -person is stored up in Character. The SELF, thus stored up, is 
realized, hence. Self- Realization is the synonym of Character and con- 
stitutes the unfailing index or fixation register of personality. 

The self, realized in the Pedagogics of Personality, is but an- 
other name for the synthesis of the habitual reactions in which the 
True Self subsists. If personality could be spatialized, the self re- 
alized in its pedagogics would be its substance. But it cannot be 
spatialized. The very genius of personality precludes stuff concepts. 
And yet, in the sense that knowledge is the product of education, the 
self realized in the Pedagogics of Personality, is the dynamic evolution 
of the primal potency or potential person. 

(53) 



AGENCIES. 

Since inhibition by substitution is the secret of self-control, self- 
realization, as the product or resultant of pro -self- stimulation and 
anti- self- starvation, depends upon a focus sufficiently magnetic to 
overcome the indulgence — hunger of the anti -self; and an objective 
upon which the pro -self may so react as to not only exercise all its 
functions but exhaust their capacities. 

The objective instrument or Pedagogue in the Pedagogics of 
Personality comprehends two essential attributes— proper provocation 
and propulsion or potency and program. The one must be divine and 
the other human, else the inspiration of the Divinely imparted primal 
potency will be inadequate and the interplay of the self- realizing 
propensities will be ineffective. Christianity measures up to the 
Divine demand and social intercourse meets the human condition. 

In the struggle for self-realization, Christianity has proven not 
only the greatest aid but the clearest interpretation. Instead of mys- 
tical and abstract formulae for the quickening of conscience, it 
presents to men a winsome, impelling, concrete ideal in the God -man 
— Christ Jesus, to obey whom is to fulfill the demands of conscience; 
to follow whom is to pursue the ideal; and to appropriate whom is 
to realize self- conquest. 

The early disciples of Christ manifested their devotion to him in 
various ways, but marked and marvelous personal traits were common 
to all of them. No matter how incisive the individuality of the men 
who have made Christian history, their names are inseparable from 
the name of Christ. This power of the one life to transform the many 
not into mere conformity to itself but into wide and fascinating variety 
of similitude is an unfathomable mystery if it is not regarded as a 
demonstration that the historical Jesus is the eternal Christ, that is, 
the Ideal Self, hidden away in the human heart from the beginning. 

Conversely, then, one finds his own selfhood hidden in Christ, 
in the apprehension and appropriation of whom he comes to and 
realizes his highest self. Thus it was that Paul realized his True self 
in personal communion with the eternal, ever living Christ, incarnate 
in the historical Jesus. Jesus is thus the same Christ for all men, 
in all lands and every age. Cosmopolitan and Universal — He consti- 
tutes the impelling inspiration or magnetic focus of the attending 
pro- self, hence is the indispensable propulsion of personality. 

This confirms the conclusion that personality apart from Chris- 
tianity is impossible. Since the Eternal Christ is the Divine Logos 
or Immanent Pole of the Divine Ellipse in the selfhood of Deity, He 
is essentially the primal potency as well as the quickening propulsion 
in the pedagogics of personality. The self to which one comes in his 
re- birth is the Christ who comes to his consciousness. No matter 
what the culture, no matter what the refinement, if the eternal Christ 
is a stranger in the selfhood, the potential person is still hidden away 
in the shadowy vale of subconsciousness. 

The complement of Christianity as its human ally in the Ped- 
agogics of Personality is the social organism with its reciprocal rela- 
tions, mutual dependences and intimate intercourse. The merest 
mention of the more vital and essential will serve to show their 
function in the Pedagogics of Personality. 

The inter-relation of PARENT and CHILD initiates and prepares 
the way for the whole process. It would be difiicult to exaggerate 
the significance of infancy in the Pedagogics of Personality. We have 
already seen that the reflex of dependence results in the child's dis- 
covery of the subject and thereby generates self- consciousness. The 
responsibility of the mother evokes unstinted self-sacrifice, so vital 
to self-realization and the evolution of personality. Buckham says 

(54) 



(Personality and the Christian Ideal, page 47), "The monogomous 
family, flowering in the Christian home, with its sacredness, its sym- 
pathy, its purity, its unity in diversity, is at once the highest 
achievement of and the richest gift to humanity. It is at the same 
time the product and the nursery of personality." 

In the Evolution of Individualism it was seen that Democracy 
demonstrates the reality of Personality. The Pedagogics of Per- 
sonality, then, presuppose the STATE and demand Democracy as that 
form of the state most effective in its process. The exercise of 
citizenship is clearly the function of self-determination, hence instru- 
mental in the evolution of personality. 

Certainly the most momentous and characteristic function of the 
CHURCH is the culture of Personality. Both Evangelism and the 
various phases of spiritual development are purely phases of the 
pedagogics of personality. The worship of the Supreme Person is 
merely the social intercourse of the Finite and the Infinite Persons. 
The Kingdom, as the consummation of the church, is but another 
name for the fellowship of the Infinite Person and the finite copies 
evolved out of the Infinite Impartation, 

The intimate intercourse and interdependence of all the industrial, 
economic and social relations are instrumental in the Pedagogics of 
Personality. Every necessary and legitimate occupation which ren- 
ders real service to humanity functions in the evolution of personality 
This is not to say that the captains of commerce pursue their business 
that they may become and help others become persons, but uncon- 
sciously they do so and in an ideal society would consciously do so. 

Free and full companionship constitutes the real worth and joy 
of life. To learn it and practice it is the supreme lesson and labor of 
life. Breaking down all barriers and mutually meeting on the highest 
plain — this would be the coming of the Kingdom. "How essential 
we are to one another! A single human person would be sterile, 
impossible, absurd. We become persons, continue persons, expand 
as persons, in mutual dependence and stimulation. Even when we 
are alone, we think and feel with reference to others. Together we 
advance to larger measures and fuller realizations of personality. 
Nor is there any limit to the progress and joy of it. Dante's vision 
of the perfect bliss of the seventh heaven is a vision of perfect per- 
sonal communion. The great white rose of perfect beatitude is only 
an harmonious company of perfected spirits in perfect communion 
with God and with each other (Buckham — Personality and the Chris- 
tian Ideal, page 54)." 



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CHAPTER VI, 

Tho Pedagogical Perspective. 

^^■^/■•^ E come now to the final phase of our task. We have 
^ ■ ^ demonstrated, by The Potency of Persons, The Evolution 
■ ^ M ■ of Individualism and The Progress of Pedagogy, that Per- 
\M^^ sonality as a center of causality, constitutes the channel, 
^"^^ and as the conservator of social heredity, the current of 
human culture. 

The factor which thus functions in the phenomena of history can 
be nothing less than the cause of which civilization is the effect. 
Democracy, with its many-sided manifestations in the movements 
which characterize the morning hours of the Twentieth Century, 
therefore, DEMONSTRATES that Personality is a VITAL REALITY. 

Morever we have supplemented the demonstration that Per- 
sonality IS, with the determination of WHAT it is. By the process 
of introspection we have sufficiently penetrated the mystery of its 
phenomena to ascertain not only its nature but to find that it is 
intrinsic or underived — ULTIMATE reality. 

It now remains to show that EDUCATION is but another name 
for the OBJECTIVE aspect of the subjective process which we have 
designated "The Pedagogics of Personality." With this established — 
The Primacy of Personality in Pedagogy is PROVEN and the key to 
the solution of the age long Educational Problem thereby discovered. 

EDUCATION DEFINED. 

Under the influence of the Evolutionary Hypothesis, Education is 
being more and more regarded as the comprehensive designation of 
biological phenomena. Professor Ruediger's definition (Principles 
of Education, page 39) is representative of the current conception: 
"To Educate a person is to ADJUST him to those elements of his 
environment that are of concern in modern life, and to develop, 
organize and train his powers so that he may make sufficient and 
proper use of them." 

The objective and subject aspects thus discriminated constitute 
two definite phases of the process. These are the points of view from 
which education, in terms of its aim, have always been defined. The 
difference is merely a matter of emphasis, but it is vital in the effort 
to ascertain the primal factor which functions in the process. 

THE CONTENT CONCEPTION. 
Education, viewed from the objective aspect of the process, be- 
comes mainly a matter of the content of the life and environment for 
which it prepares the individual. 

ADJUSTMENT. 

Butler (Meaning of Education, page 27) : "If education cannot be 
Identified with mere instruction, what is it? What does the term 
mean? I answer, it must mean a gradual ADJUSTMENT to the 
spiritual possessions of the race." 

Home (Philosophy of Education, page 285) : "Education is the 
eternal process of superior adjustment of the physically and mentally 
developed, free, conscious, human being to God, as manifested in the 
intellectual, emotional and volitional environment of man." 

Though differing in terminology, these definitions are identical 
in meaning. By the term "adjustment," both Butler and Home, as 
well as O'Shea and others who use it, mean, as Professor Ruediger 
tersely expresses it (Principles of Education, page 52), "Intelligent 
mastery over one's environment, increased harmony with it, and 

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added appreciation of it." In other words, they regard one as educated 
"when he feels at home in the world, has at least a part of it under 
his intelligent control, and has had new avenues of intellectual and 
emotional enjoyment opened up to him." 

SOCIAL EFFICIENCY. 

Bagley (Educative Process, page 22) postulates the following, as 
the lowest terms to which education can be reduced: "Education may 
be tentatively defined as the process by means of which the individual 
acquires experiences that will function in rendering more efficient 
his future action." 

His real meaning, in the expression, "efficient action," is indicated 
by what he says on pages 60-65: "Social efficiency is the standard 
by which the forces of education must select the experiences that 
are to be impressed upon the individual. Every subject of instruc- 
tion, every item of knowledge, every form of reaction, every detail 
of habit must be measured by this yardstick. Not, what pleasure 
will this bring the Individual; not, in what manner will this con- 
tribute to his harmonious development; not, what effect will this have 
upon his bread -winning capacity; but always, will this subject, or this 
knowledge, or this reaction, or this habit so function in his after-life 
that society will maximally profit?" 

It now remains to state as clearly and explicitly as possible just 
what social efficiency means. 

(1) That person only is socially efficient who is not a drag upon 
society, in other words, can 'pull his own weight," either directly as 
a productive agent or indirectly by guiding, inspiring or educating 
others to productive effort. 

(2) That man only is socially efficient who in addition to "pulling 
his weight," interferes as little as possible with the efforts of others. 

This requires of a socially efficient individual that he be moral In 
at least a negative fashion; that he respect the rights of others, sac- 
rificing his own pleasure when this interferes with the productive 
efforts of others. 

(3) That man is socially most efficient who not only fulfills these 
two requirements, but also lends his energy consciously and persist- 
ently to that further differentation and integration of social forces 
which is everywhere synonymous with progress." 

Dewey does not use the term "social efficiency," but his "Ped- 
agogic Creed" is permeated with the idea. He says (Article I) : "I 
believe that all education proceeds by the participation of the indi- 
vidual in the SOCIAL consciousness of the race. This process begins 
unconsciously almost at birth, and is continually shaping the 
individual's powers, saturating his consciousness, forming his habits, 
training his ideas, and arousing his feelings and emotions. Through 
this unconscious education the individual gradually comes to share 
in the intellectual and moral resources which humanity has suc- 
ceeded in getting together. He becomes an inheritor of the funded 
capital of civilization. The most formal and technical education In 
the world cannot safely depart from this general process. It can 
only organize it; or differentiate it in some particular direction." 

MORAL CHARACTER. 

Lange and DeGarmo (Herbart's Outlines of Educational Doctrine, 
page 7), in the words of the great Pedagogist, make the aim of 
education Moral — "The term VIRTUE expresses the whole purpose 
of education.Virtue is the idea of inner freedom which has developed 
into an abiding actuality in an individual. Whence, as inner freedom 

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is a relation between insight and volition, a double task is at once 
set before the teacher. It becomes his business to make actual each 
of these factors separately, in order that later a permanent rela- 
tionship may result. 

But even here at the outset we need to bear in mind the identity 
of morality with the effort put forth to realize the permanent actuality 
of the harmony between insignt and violition. 

McMurray, a disciple of Herbart, summarizes the leading char- 
acteristics and merits of this "moral, character- building" conception 
as follows (Elements of General Method, page 12) : 

1. The attainment of moral excellence in conduct is the per- 
fection of the individual. 

2. Ability to fulfill the moral law in the social relations is the 
chief demand that society makes upon the individual. 

3. Moral enlightenment and growth toward moral conduct are 
subject to the same laws as other forms of mental culture. 

4. Several of the most important studies furnish peculiarly 
strong and appropriate material for moral instruction. 

5. The school is not narrowed by ethical theory. As a social 
organization, through its activities and discipline, it furnishes also the 
transition from theory to practice and conduct. 

6. A fairly complete and practical scheme of moral education on 
the basis of ethics and pedagogy is within the reach of all teachers. 

7. Every wise and benevolent person knows that the first and 
last question to ask and to answer regarding a child is, "What are 
his moral qualities and strength?" 

COMPLETE LIVING. 

Spencer regards the aim of education as "preparation for com- 
plete living." He says (Education, page 30) "How to live? — that is 
the essential question for us. Not how to live in the mere material 
sense only, but in the widest sense. The general problem which 
comprehends every social problem is — the right ruling of conduct ki 
all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat the body; 
in which way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our affirs; 
in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a citizen; 
in what way to utilize all these resources of happiness which nature 
supplies — how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of 
ourselves and others; how to live completely? And this being the 
great thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing 
which education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is 
the function which education has to discharge and the only rational 
mode of judging of any educational course is to judge in what degree 
it discharges this function." 

He classifies the leading types of activity which constiute human 
life, and that education should meet, as follows: 

1. Those activities which directly administer to self-preservation. 
2. Those activities which, by securing the necessaries of life, in- 
directly minister to self-preservation. 3. Those activities which have 
for their end the rearing and discipline of offspring. 4. Those 
activities which are involved in the maintenance of proper social and 
political relations. 5. Those miscellaneous activities which make up 
the leisure part of life, devoted to the gratification of the tastes and 
feelings." 

This definition deserves the sharp criticism it has always had 
because the term "complete living" is ambiguous. Spencer doubtless 
anticipated criticism and sought to allay it by offering the following 

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explanation (page 5) : "Of course the ideal of education is complete 
preparation in all these divisions. But failing this ideal, as in our 
phase of civilization, every one must do more or less, the aim should 
be to maintain a due proportion between the degrees of preparation 
. in each. Not exhaustive cultivation in any one, supremely important 

\ though it may be; not even exclusive attention to the two, three, or 

four divisions of greatest importance, but an attention to all — greatest 
where value is greatest, less where the value is less, and least where 
the value is least." 

Evidently the conception of the great philosopher was not 
'complete living" in the sense of maximum achievement throughout, 
hut rather "balanced or harmonious" living. So interpreted — 
"complete living' is merely another name for "adjustment to life," 
and Spencer's view like that of Bagley, Dewey, and Herbart, 
harmonizes with and is comprehended by the conception of Butler 
and Home. 

THE FORMAL CONCEPTIOOSr. 

From the view-point of the subjective phase, education becomes 
a development rather than an adjustment, and may be best stated 
in terms of the changes effected in the physicial field. 

DEVELOPMENT. 

Ruediger (Principles of Education, page 74) gives Stein's 
definition as typical of the formative type: '' "Education is the 
harmonious and equable evolution of the human faculties, by a 
_i ^nelhod based upon the nature of the mind for developing all the 
faculties of the soul, for stirring up and nourishing all the principles 
of life, while shunning all one sided culture and taking account of 
the sentiments upon which the strength and worth of men depend." 

Pestalozzi's view, quoted in the same connection, is: "Sound 
education stands before me symbolized by a tree planted near fer- 
tilizing waters. A little seed which contains the design of the tree, 
its form and its properties, is placed in the soil. The whole tree is 
an uninterrupted chain of organic parts, the plan of which exists in 
its seed and root. Man is similar to the tree. In the new-born child 
are hidden those faculties which are to unfold during life. The in- 
dividual and separate organs of his being form themselves gradually 
into unison, and build up humanity in the image of God. The educa- 
tion of man is a purely moral result. It is not the educator who puts 
new faculties into man, and imparts to him breath and life. He only 
takes care that no untoward influence shall disturb nature's march 
of development. The moral, intellectual and practical powers of man 
must be nourished within himself and not from artificial substitutes." 

Froebel's view closely resembles that of Pestalozzi, though it is 
more complicated by the philosophy with which it is interwoven. In 
the opening chapter of "The Education of Man" he gives this defini- 
tion: "Education consists in leading man, as a thinking, intelligent 
being, growing into self- consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, con- 
scious and free presentation of the inner law of divine Unity, and 
in teaching him ways and means thereto." 

Despite the difference in wording, these definitions are much 
alike in meaning. They both have reference to the organization, 
development, and unfolding of man's powers or faculties, and they 
imply or specify that this process should be harmonious and equable. 
The child is compared with the growing flower that must be brought 
to its formal perfection of bloom. The content of what the child is 
taught is not emphasized, for that is regarded as secondary. External 
conditions must, indeed, be right, but chiefly or only because of their 
formal subjective influence. 

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-i 



DISCIPLINE. 

The doctrine of "Formal Diecipline" does not so much concern 
itself with the harmonious unfoldment of all the powers, which im- 
plies a wide range of activity, but it rests on the assumption that a 
mental power may be exercised and perfected in a narrow range of 
activity and that it may then be applied in any department of life. 
For instance, those who hold this view regard the value of Geometry 
as an element of the curriculum, to consist in its efficiency in d"e- 
veloping or disciplining the reasoning powers, which having been thus 
developed, may be utilized in business or professional life. 

"Formal Discipline" was fundamental in the Educational theory 
of the Greeks. It persisted in Mediaeval Education and many modem 
writers are either champions of the doctrine or unconsuiously in- 
fluenced by it. A few citations will serve to clearly indicate the 
nature and import of the view. 

Locke, though not an avowed advocate of the doctrine, undoubtedly 
leans toward it in the exposition of his educational theory. He says 
(Conduct of the Understanding) "Would you have a man reason well, 
you must use him to it betimes; exercise his mind in observing the 
connection of ideas and following them in train. Nothing does this 
better than mathematics, which therefore should be taught all those 
who have the time and opportunity, not so much to make them 
mathematicians as to make them reasonable creatures. '. . . Not 
that I think it necessary that all men should be deep mathematicians, 
hut having got the way of reasoning, which that study necessarily 
brings the mind to, they might be able to transfer it to other parts 
of knowledge as they shall have occasion. 

"The business of education is not, as I think, to make them (the 
young) perfect in any one of the sciences, but so to open and dispose 
their minds as may best make them capable of any when they shall 
apply themselves to it. It is therefore to give them this freedom that 
I think they should be made to look into all sorts of knowledge and 
exercise their understanding in so wide a variety and stock of 
knowledge, but a variety and freedom of thinking; as an increase of 
the powers and activity of the mind, not as an enlargement of its 
possessions." 

Huxley's point of view, in his famous definition of a liberal educa- 
tion, is purely disciplinary. He says (Science and Education, page 
86) : "That man, I think, has a liberal education who has been so 
trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and 
does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it is 
capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine, with all its 
parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order; ready, like a 
steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and spin the gos- 
samers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose mind is 
stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of na- 
ture, and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, 
is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel 
by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has 
learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, to hate all 
vileness, and to respect others as himself. Such an one and no other, 
I conceive to have a liberal education; for he is, as completely as a 
man can be, in harmony with nature." 

EVALUATION. 
By the elimination of radiating incidentals and minor meanings, 
and the translation of phraseology in terms of the essential idea in 
the definitions and discussions cited, the content conception of edu- 

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r 



1 



cation is compretiended by the term adjustment; and the formal con- 
ception by the term development. The view- point of the former la 
objective and is fundamental in the teaching function; while the 
view- point of the latter is subjective and is fundamental in the learn- 
ing process. Education includes both, hence any definition which does 
not comprehend both is defective. This explains the age long con- 
troversy waged between the champions of the content conception and 
the champions of the formal conception. We may cry peace but there 
can be no peace so long as pedagogy is regarded merely from the 
view- point of a phase of the process. The ultimate solution of the 
educational problem can be found only in that synthesis which unifies 
both adjustment and development in a common conception compre- 
hending both the subjective and the objective aspect as complementary 
phases of the one common process. 

This achievement has not been accomplished thus far in the 
evolution of educational theory. Ruediger renders a real service to 
this end in the formulation of his two-sided definition (already quoted) 
in which he clearly recognizes the two sides of the educative process — 
the subjective and the objective. But even he offers no synthesis 
other than to suggest that the term adjustment implies both. 

That prince of Psychologists, Professor William James, sur- 
passes him in a definition which really does in a measure unify the 
subjective and the objective. His statement is: (Talks to Teachers, 
page 29) "Education cannot be better described than by calling it 
the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to 
behaviour." 

Here we have a clear recognition of the subjective phase in the 
term "tendencies to behaviour," in which not only the fact but some- 
thing of the nature of a subjective factor is implied. The objective 
phase is also recognized in the term "acquired habits of conduct," 
meaningless indeed if the content of education is not implied. The 
other term is the key to this definition and provides the synthetic 
center, namely, ORGANIZATION. Organization, without an ORGAN, 
is an absurdity; just as adjustment without something to adjust and 
something adjusted; or developmentment without something to de- 
velop and something developed. In other words, the ultimate synthesis 
of education essentially grounds itself in the subject. This is not to 
say that education is subjective rather than objective, but that the 
subject is the center of unity in the process; the actor which acts; 
the factor which functions in the adjustment and development which 
constitutes the poles of pedagogy. 

The identity of the sovereign subject may be apprehended by the 
translation of the adjustment and development effected by education, 
into terms of the potency primal in the process. 

We have already seen that education adjusts the individual to 
his environment by evolving in him mastery over it, harmony with 
it, and appreciation of it. But these terms have two sides according 
to the view -point. They are expressions by which relations are 
designated and they are also reflections of capacity. As the former, 
they are adjustment, and as the latter, they are development. In 
other words, education is the subjective evolution of the capacity to 
master, unify and enjoy environment. But mastery is merely another 
name for the function of freedom; harmony for intelligence; and 
appreciation for balanced emotion. That is the subjective side of 
education is the evolved capacity to think, to will and to feel in terms 
of the objective phase. It is clear, then, that the evolving subject is 
a sovereign self, inherently self-conscious and self- determinative; 
and the objective aspect, but the content conception of the stimulus 
which calls into action the dynamic out of which the capacity to 

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think, to feel and to do, evolves. 

Since teaching or the provision of the eliciting environment 
afeainst which the self reacts in its evolution as personality is the 
objective aspect of education; and learning or the function of the 
subject in the adjustment of the self to the eliciting environment is 
the subjective aspect of education, the logical synthesis is the con- 
ception of pedagogy as the objective phase of the process which we 
have designated as the pedagogics of personality. 

In other words, the organ which organizes acquired habits of 
conduct and tendencies to behaviour is not the educator but the sub- 
ject educated; the acquired habits of conduct are the content of edu- 
cation; and the tendencies to behaviour are the formal aspect, hence 
the self, the person and the subject are identical; personality is 
the attribute of the primal potency and pedagogy the objective aspect 
of the process in which it functions. That is. Personality is the 
product or subjective side of Education; and Pedagogy is the Process 
or objective side of Education. Since the relation is that of instrument 
to agent, the subject is sovereign, Personality is PRIMAL in Pedagogy, 
and Education is, in its last analysis, SELF-REALIZATION. 

The validity of this hypothesis and its formal expression as the 
synthesis of Education is evident in the 

PEDAGOGICAL DETERMINISM 

of 

PERSONALITY. 

In every complete act of teaching, there are, according to the 
scientific analysis of Dr. John M. Gregory, seven distinct elements, as 
follows: (1) Two actors — a teacher and a learner; (2) two mental 
factors— a common language or medium of communication, and a '^ 
lesson or truth to be communicated; and (3) three functional acts or 
processes — that of the teacher, that of the learner, and a final or 
finishing process to test and fix the result. 

"These," says Dr. Gregory (Seven Laws of Teaching, page 3) 
"are essential parts of every full and complete act of teaching. 
Whether the lesson be a single fact told in three minutes or a lecture 
occupying as many hours, the seven factors are all there, if the work > 

is entire. None of them can be omitted, and no other need be ■ 

added. No full account of the philosophy of teaching can be given 
which does not include them all, and if there is any true science of 
teaching, it must lie in the laws and relations of these seven elements 
and facts. No true or successful art of teaching can be found or 
contrived which is not based upon these factors and their laws." 

The essential elements of the educative process — three Ts and 
four Ls — the Teacher, Teaching and Testing; and the Learner, Learn- 
ing the Lesson, through a common Langauge — constitute the funda- 
mental factors of Pedagogy. It is obvious that each has its own 
characteristic, which makes it what it is. Each is differentiated from 
any and all of the others by this essential characteristic, and each 
functions in the common process by virtue of the innate potency and 
propensity in which it is grounded. As Dr. Gregory says (Seven 
Laws of Teaching, page 4) : "Each is a distinct entity or fact of 
nature; and as every fact of nature is the product and proof of some 
LAW of nature, so each element here described has its own great law 
of function or action and these taken together constitute the Seven 
Laws of Teaching." 

The mere citation of these laws will suflace to show that in every 
Instance they are either attributes or functional expressions of the 
attributes of personality, hence, determined by personality as the 
primal potency. This fact is so evident that argument would be a 

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presumption. Dr. Gregory says (Seven Laws of Teaching, page 5) : 
"These laws are not obscure and hard to reach. They are so simple 
and natural that they suggest themselves almost spontaneously to any 
one who carefully notes the facts. They lie imbedded in the simplest 
description that can be given of the seven elements named, as in the 
following: 

(1) A TEACHER must be one who KNOWS the lesson or truth 
to be taught. 

(2) A LEARNER is one who attends with interest to the lesson 
given. 

(3) The LANGUAGE used as a MEDIUM between teacher and 
learner must be COMMON to both. 

(4) The LESSON to be learned must be explicable in the terms 
of truth already known by the learner — the UNKNOWN must be ex- 
plained by the KNOWN. 

(5) TEACHING is arousing and using the pupil's mind to form 
in it a desired conception or thought. 

(6) LEARNING is thinking into one's own understanding a new 
idea or truth. 

(7) The test and proof of teaching done — the finishing and fas- 
tening process— must be RE- VIEWING, RE- THINKING, RE- 
KNOWING, and RE -PRODUCING of the knowledge taught." 

These definitions are permeated with universally accepted prin- 
ciples of pedagogy, and that personality is primal or determinative in 
every one of them I submit: 

Personality, as a spiritual potency, ultimate reality subsisting in 
self- consciousness, self-determination, self -manifestation, and self- 
appreciation, comprehends every one of them as essential attributes, 
This may be demonstrated by reducing them to pedagogical axioms, 
as follows : 

(1) If a teacher must KNOW what he would teach, he must 
be a PERSON, because comprehensive knowledge is an attribute of 
personality. 

(2) If ATTENTION is the essential condition to learning, a 
LEARNER must be a Person, because ATTENTION is a phase of 
Self- Determination, therefore, a function of Personality. 

(3) If LANGUAGE is a medium of communication and must be 
common to both teacher and learner, it is essentially a product of 
personality, because it presupposes the rational processes by which 
common knowledge is ascertained on the part of the teacher and the 
self identity of the learner, in which the intelligibility of the com- 
mon medium is grounded. 

(4) If the LESSON to be learned must be explicable in terms 
of truth already known by the learner, both its form and substance 
are determined by personality, because the translation of the truth 
into terms of the pupil's previous experience involves reflection in 
both the teacher and the learner and REFLECTION is a phase of 
self-consciousness, hence, a function of personality. 

(5) If TEACHING is, in its last analysis, merely the stimulation 
of the self- activities of the learner, the personality of the learner is 
primal in the process, because the potency which reacts is sovereign 
both in its degree and direction, and the reacting potency is the self- 
determination in which personality subsists. 

(6) If LEARNING is thinking into one's own understanding a 
new idea or truth, it is essentially a function of Personality, because 
the perception, apperception and conception involved in the process 

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are both introspective and reflectiye, hence, but phases of self- con- 
sciousness. 

(7) If the test and proof of teaching — the finishing and fasten- 
ing process— is essentially RE-VIEWING, RE-THINKING, RE- 
KNOWING and RE -PRODUCING the knowledge taught, the test and 
proof of teaching is a function of personality because purely reflective, 
and reflection is a phase of self- consciousness and personality sub- 
sists in self- consciousness. 

By properly summarizing and shifting these axioms, they denom- 
strate that both the science and the art of education are grounded in, 
hence, determined by Personality. In other words, the Seven Laws 
of Teaching demonstrate the identity of the principles of pedagogy 
and the objective aspects or functions of personality. A survey of 
pedagogy from any and every possible view- point confirms this con- 
clusion. 

For instance, Personality determines beyond peradventure the 
WHO of education. Since teaching — stimulating the sovereign self 
of the learner — is the function of a self, equally sovereign and en- 
dowed with the capacity to project an ideal, only a person can 
educate, because both freedom and purpose are propensities of 
personality. 

It is even more evident that Personality determines the WHOM 
of education Since it has become a commonplace to define "educabil- 
ity" as "the capacity to profit by past experience," and since the 
capacity to profit by past experience is grounded in the identity of the 
self and the evolving intelligence of the subject, educability is the 
synonym of potential personality. It is obvious, therefore, that only 
a person can be educated. 

If educability is but another name for potential personality, one 
is educated when, and only when, possible personality has become 
actual personality, therefore, the subjective phase of education is 
the unfolding of personality, hence. Personality determines the WHAT 
of education. 

The WHAT really includes the WHY. If the subjective phase 
of education is the unfolding of personality, the AIM of education 
must be regarded as that stimulation of the self which provokes it to 
the realization of possible personality. The TASK of the teacher, 
then, is the culture of Personality. 

Even the CURRICULUM — the stimulation and nutrition of the 
evolving self — is a product of personality. It was clearly shown In 
the chapter on "The Potency of Persons," that every instrument by 
which human culture is preserved and propagated — Science, Litera- 
ture, Art, Philosophy, History — is merely the manifestation of a 
Person. Being thought out before they could be wrought out — they 
were impossible apart from personality. Thus it is that Truth taught 
and Thought learned, as well as Truth thought, that is, the CUR- 
RICULUM, whether books, charts, lectures, laboratory exercises or 
even participation in the life of society, is essentially the product 
of personality. 

Finally, if potential personality is the synonym of educability; 
If both the capacity to educate and the instrument by which it is 
effected are functions and aspects of personality; if the subject 
educated essentially becomes, and can become a person, only thereby; 
in other words, if Personality absolutely determines the WHO, the 
WHOM, the WHAT, the WHY and the WHEREWITH of Pedagogy, 
the logic of the phenomena is irresistible. Personality is not only the 
PRODUCT but primal in the PROCESS of Pedagogy, hence, must be 
regarded as the essential END, the effective INSTRUMENT, and the 

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PRIMAL POTENCY in EDUCATION. 

THE PEDAGOGY PRESCRIBED 

by 

PERSONALITY. 

Since the subjective aspect of self-realization Is the Pedago^cs 
of Personality and the objective aspect is Education, Pedagogy is the 
phenomena of evolving personality. Education, then, is vital — a 
process of living, rather than preparation for future living. In this 
deduction we have the personal epitome of the fundamental peda- 
gogical 

PRINCIPLES. 

Self-relization begins with, is perpetuated by, and consummated 
in SELF-EXPRESSION. This implies that the subject is active 
rather than passive and that the activity is self -originated, hence, 
the only real education possible for a person is self- education. 

The two pedagogical maxims which reflect the highest develop- 
ment of Modern Education — "No impression without expression," and 
"Learning by doing" — are grounded in this propulsive propensity of 
potential personality. The first makes expression essential to the 
fixation of an impression in consciousness, and the second identifies 
the expression with the learning process. 

The scientific soundness of this principle is demonstrated by the 
phenomena of the "sensori- motor arc." The physiological background 
of psychical phenomena and parallel with it in its processes is, as 
we have already seen, the nervous system, with its three definite 
phases or functions: The sensory nerves, which conduct sense- 
stimulus to the brain; the brain itself, which serves as a sort of cen- 
tral telephone exchange for putting one part of the organism into 
touch with other parts; and the motor nerves, which conduct the 
stimulus of motion to the muscles and cause them to contract. 

The machinery of the mind is parallel in its processes with this 
physical phenomena. Every complete mental state is three -fold: 
First, impressions of sense; Second, thoughts and emotions; and. 
Third, volitions and impulses to action. These three phases are, 
however, only discriminated aspects, for they are never broken up 
into definite elements. The three are a unity, that is, a mental state 
is never complete without all three — impression, translation and ex- 
pression. Whatever clogs the expressive channels clogs the whole 
current of mental energy, so that impressions without proper and 
adequate expression evaporate and, hence, effect no change in the 
psycho- physical organism. 

By reverting to the discussion of "self-determination," we have 
Insight into the part Personality plays in the function of expression. 
Back of that phenomena, as the essential condition to self-realization, 
we have the primal phase of the process. The subject is sovereign 
In the determination of the dynamic direction. The consequence is 
that when impressions are expressed, along with the impulse ex- 
pressed and thereby fixed in consciousness as an element of intelli- 
gence, the self is expressed and thereby evolved as personality, in 
the measure of the function involved in the experience. 

AGENCIES. 
These fundamental principles absolutely determine the agencies 
that are effective in education. They fix their functions and pre- 
scribe their limitations. As Professor Dewey says (Pedagogic Creed, 
page 6) : "The child's own instincts and powers furnish the material 
and give the starting point for all education. Save as the efforts of 
the educator connect with some activity which the child is carrying 

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on of his own initiative, independent of the educator, education be- 
comes reduced to a pressure from without. It may, indeed, give 
certain external results, but cannot truly be called educative. With- 
out insight into the psychological structure and activities of the 
individual, the educative process will, therefore, be haphazard and 
arbitrary." 

Since every experience modifies future adjustment, all experience 
is educative. The converse is just as true, nothing is educative but 
experience. By the maxim, "Experience is the best teacher," it is 
meant that experiences that are gained incidentally in the course 
of the individual life are much more effective in modifying adjustment 
than experiences gained formally for the express purpose of modifying 
adjustment. All this is but another way of saying that we not only 
learn best by doing, but we can learn only by doing. 

And yet education limited to haphazard experiences is poor 
pedagogy. Professor Bagley( Educative Process, page 24f) indicts 
it on two counts: (1) It is unsystematic: It fixes only the ex- 
periences that happen to come, and makes no provisions for ex- 
periences that may not be presented until adjustment has come to 
move in fixed channels; until the bodily tendencies are firm and 
stable, and hence insusceptible to ready modification. (2) It is 
uneconomical: It leaves out of account the mass of experience that 
the race has acquired, and thus virtually leaves unutilized the 
capacity which man alone possesses to profit by the experience of 
others. If the child had a life as long as that of the race, and if he 
remained in a plastic stage throughout this period, we might well leave 
him to work out his own salvation. In short, the phrase, "Experience 
is the best teacher," is not nearly so profound as the qualification that 
is commonly added — "Experience is the best teacher AND ALSO 
THE DEAREST." 

All this is but another way of saying that, although education 
is, in its last analysis, self- education, yet the process is, if effective, 
essentially complex. The sovereign subject may have and sorely 
needs assistance in the struggle to self-realization. Many factors 
thus participate in the process of pedagogy. The primacy of per- 
sonality in providing them, in fixing their functions and prescribing 
their limitations may be proven by subjecting the more important 
to a critical analysis. 

THE TEACHER. 

The primal objective prescription of evolving personality is a 
Teacher, whose essential function is to evoke the evolution. 

Self-expression essentially presupposes not only a subject but 
an object. Reaction without something upon which to react is an 
absurdity. Impulse implies incitation, and right here we have re- 
vealed both the nature and the vital need of the teacher's task. 
Proper reaction is essential to the evolution of personality, and proper 
reaction presupposes proper incitation. The possibility of proper 
incitation depends upon such manipulation of environment as design 
may dictate, and design is the manifestation of intelligence, hence, 
education essentially presupposes an EDUCATOR or TEACHER, 
whose function is two -fold: 

In what he DOES, the teacher teaches by MANIPULATION. He 
exercises that control over the pupil's environment which in large 
measure determines what experiences are possible for him, and 
thereby practically directs the propensities of the potential person 
as they unfold. Thus by nutrition and exercise, self-realization is 
gradually effected. 

The supreme task of the teacher, however, is not to Do but to 

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BE. The teaching of all teaching is in what the teacher IS. The 
great teachers of history, such as Abelard, Alcuin, Arnold and Mark 
Hopkins, or John A. Broadus and B. H. Carroll, were not immortalized 
by so-acalled pedagogical skill but rather by what they were, and 
they were colossal and dynamic PERSONALITIES. By the very 
limitations of pedagogy, as we have already seen, the teacher must 
be a person, that is, only a person can teach, because his personality 
is primal in his function. 

He is, first of all, the pupil's INTERPRETATION. Living is the 
great art, and the teacher interprets life to his pupils. The keys 
of destiny are in his keeping. The inexperience of a pupil renders 
life unintelligible and correct living difficult for him. A teacher whose 
personality has been developed by wide experience and extended 
observation is a master of the art of living. He knows the shallows 
and the rocks, also the great safe deep and the harbor beyond. 
While he may neither drive nor pull, he can PILOT for the pupil 
who will permit it. In a word, it is the privilege and task of the 
teacher to focalize the phenomena of life so that it may be apprehended 
and appropriated by the evolving personality of the pupil. 

Above all, the teacher is the pupil's INSPIRATION. He actually 
imparts potency to the propensities of the potential person. He is 
no teacher who does not literally SHARE himself with his pupils. 
He cannot really teach unless, with his relatively mature life, he 
enters into and takes upon himself the lives of his pupils, and thus 
becomes one of them. 

This mingling of two personalities in the pedagogical process is 
made possible by the social- manifesting propensity of personality. 
The pole of the potential person and the pole of the potent person are 
mutually attracted by the common passion for possession. Here we 
have the insatiable interest of the great teacher in a simple lad and 
the reciprocal interest of the simple lad in the great teacher explained. 

The power of the teacher to provoke self-expression in the primal 
potency of the potential person is thus grounded in the mutual at- 
traction of the polar centers whence the dynamic of desire radiates 
in terms of affection or the passion for the interplay of personality. 
The one qualification, which comprehends all other qualifications ( as 
phases or discriminated aspects, of the teacher, is PERSONALITY. 

THE HOME. 

The primacy of the home as an organic educational agency is due 

to its determinism in both heredity and environment. The former, 

at least the larger half of a man's life, lies wholly within its province. 

While the latter is broader and bigger than the home, yet it is limited 

to the home sphere during the most susceptible years of childhood, 

and so manipulates the awakening and unfolding instincts as to lay 

the foundation, if not, indeed, entirely fix the habits of life. Lincoln 

was universally regarded as a self-made man, and yet he said: "All 

. that I am or hope to be I owe to my mother." When asked the 

T secret of his success, Timothy Dwight replied, "I had the right 

mother." 

If the quality of hogs and horses is largely a question of pedigree; 
if seed is determinative in the production of the sweetest roses and 
the fairest lilies; parentage is, to say the least, potent in the evolution 
of human personality. How could it be otherwise when the original 
^ nucleus is purely hereditary? The best authorities are agreed that 
not only the instinctive tendencies but the temperament is trans- 
mitted. 

The environmental nutrition of the original nucleus is essentially 

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the function of the family. The world into which the infant is bom is 
hedged about by the walls of the home. The first influences to which 
it responds radiates from and revolve about the mother. Gradually 
the atmosphere of the family mingles with that of the mother and 
thus the evoked development proceeds. The primacy of the home is 
thus evident. The family influences the life first and at the most 
plastic period, that is, when an educational agency is most effective, 
and, as we shall see in the most effective way, if normal. 

The eflicacy of the home as an organic educational agency de- 
pends absolutely upon three vital characteristics: 

FIRST Since the very educability of the human infant is 

determined by heredity, PARENTAGE is the primal presupposition 
in the educational function of the home. All other things being equal, 
he can and will attain to the highest self realization who is the best 
born. The science of Eugenics is essentially fundamental in educa- 
tion. The most perfect offspring is possible only by the most perfect 
mating. The heritage of a sound body, a normal physical organism, 
is indispensable to the utmost mental development. Sane conservatism 
demands common sense, scientific safeguards in legal enactment and 
eternal vigilance in the foundations of the family if it shall be 
efficient as an educational institution. 

SECOND — Since education is effected by the stimulation of the 
childs powers through the demands of the social situation in which 
he finds himself, the family functions as an organic educational 
agency only as the child participates in the life which permeates it. 
In other words, the efficacy of the home in the education of the child 
depends upon the possibility of the child's participation in its life. 
The unfolding process results not from conformity but through the 
exercise of the functions of a member of the family community. 

Participation in the community life of the family involves shariag 
in the work of the parents as well as the fellowships in reaction and 
sacred functions of love and comradeship. Thus parents educate only 
as the child is educated by filling his place as a member of the 
family community, that is by submitting his whole conduct to the 
law of the sharing of life. 

The key to the whole problem is the realization that the family 
is a community rather than a mere collection of individuals. Com- 
munity life involves mutual giving and receiving, helping and being 
helped, especially of submission of every member to the necessary 
conditions of common life. Law is involved in the very idea of the 
family as a community. In its nature it is simply mutual helpfulness 
so organized as to execute itself with efficiency, hence, parents 
function most effectively as teachers when they regard themselves as 
subject to the law of the common welfare and yield to its demands 
as readily as they expect the child to yield. Participation in the 
common life is essential to the normal development of the child. The 
ideal home, therefore, is so organized that it functions in a community 
life, in which parent and child share alike. 

THIRD — To the extent that the scope of its activities compre- 
hends the capacities of the unfolding infant, is the home an efficient 
educational agency. That is, the most efficient home functions in 
a life which is the epitome of the ultimate life of society. A lop-sided 
family life inevitably results in lop-sided children. 

This condition to family efficiency in education raises the whole 
problem of innate capacities. The solution is simple. Since society 
comprehends all the functions of its constituents, its accurate analysis 
must be regarded as the innate capacities of the normal individual. 
While Butler's interpretation of his analysis was defective, his analysis 
may be accepted as fairly accurate, hence, what he calls the Scientific, 

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Literary, Aesthetic, Institutional and Religious inheritance of the lih- 
dividual constitutes the life of society, and, therefore, ought to char- 
acterize every home. In other words, complete family life must 
comprehend the physical, intellectual, aesthetic, institutional and 
religious functions which constitute the life of society. 

That the Twentieth Century family falls far short of these de- 
mands must be admitted by all. Not only so but that there has 
been a decline in the educational efficiency of the home during recent 
decades. 

This decline is largely due to the changing industrial conditions 
which tend to prevent community life in the home. In the FIRST 
place, the occupation of most fathers is no longer carried on even 
near, much less at home. This prevents not only the sharing life 
but sympathetic acquaintance. 

In the SECOND place, the increasing complexity of modern life, 
with its specialization and division of labor, leaves but little for the 
family to do, hence, but little opportunity for children to oq- 
operate with their parents. 

THIRD, and more momentous still, the enormous increase in city 
population has vitiated the educational efficiency of the home and 
worked woe to the child. While the family is broken up and scattered 
to the winds by the manifold currents of business, social and recrea- 
tional interests; the sensitive brain of the child is fairly bombarded 
with endless excitements. The city masses the forces of evil and 
gives them a standing and an opportunity which they cannot have in 
the rural sections. The young behold evil constantly. They see it 
tolerated and taken for granted, and cannot be kept ignorant of the 
fact that they may indulge their lower inclinations with the least 
chance of discovery and reproach. This is true not only of evil in 
its grosser forms, such as drinking, gambling and licentiousness, but 
also of all those frivolities that enervate character. It has been truly 
said that the city is a good place to make money and have a good 
time, but a poor place to rear children. 

FOURTH, and finally — We are living in an age of increasing in- 
comes for the masses and growing fortunes for the wealthy. The 
effect upon the family is direct and immediate. Self-indulgene is 
encouraged and the homely virtues are either forgotten or despised. 
Leisure begets luxury, and luxury leads to fondness for display; the 
decay of active human sympathies; the creation of artificial tastes; 
the acceptance of artificial standards; and the tendency to relax 
wholesome moral restraints. 

"Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey. 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay." 

The remedies for these defects are easily discerned In their 
elaboration : 

FIRST — A proper parental appreciation of the child. So long as 
fathers care more for their business than for their boys; so long as 
mothers are more interested in their clubs than their children; in 
short, so long as the choice of parents is in favor of interests, no 
matter what their nature, which compete with the child, he will be 
cheated out of his inalienable right to the nurture of a normal home 
life. The helplessness and plasticity of the human infant preempt 
priority in the parental evaluation of interests. The violation of this 
order is not only calamitous but blameworthy; indeed it la the un- 
pardonable sin of society. 

SECOND — A correct parental conception of the family function. A 
thoroughgoing conviction that to beget the child is, in itself, the 
assumption of the obligation to give the child a chance. In other 

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words, the consciousness that the family is primarily an educational 
agency; that it is not only an educational agency but the FUN- 
DAMENTAL educational agency, the functions of which no other 
agency can effectively perform. 

THIRD — The^ simplification of life, such that time may be had 
for family fellowship. Let the home. Instead of the lodge and the 
club, become, as it once was, the social center. Less evenings out 
and more evenings in, will benefit parents as well as children. In 
the absence of the old time fire- side, let the family gather about the 
center table, under the electric chandelier, for an evening of social 
intercourse, with good literature, music, both vocal and instrumental, 
and above all, the old fashioned "Good Night," with "Family Prayer." 
All this may be fogyism, but it is nevertheless fundamental in the 
normal development of children; if not, indeed, essential to the sal- 
vation of society. 

FOURTH — The resurrection of Community life in the home. This 
is not to say that specialization is to be repudiated and primitive 
methods revived in providing necessities, but that some plans should 
be devised whereby parent and child could have opportunity to share 
in such activities as are needed to stimulate the complex capacities 
of the growing lad and lassie. Let the boy have some part in his 
father's oflBce or other place of business. At least let the parent and 
child join in some simple gardening, shop work, or other tasks which 
will be recreation for the parent and the most effective education 
for the child. 

FIFTH — Some specific and formal instruction in such delicate and 
sacred matters as the secrets of life and the phenomena of spiritual 
religion. The intimacy and confidence involved in acquiring whole- 
some conceptions of the former is peculiar to the possible relation 
between parent and child. As to the latter, it is a truism that personal 
religion, exemplified in the life of the parent and the atmosphere of 
the home, is the most potent influence in the stimulation of the child's 
religious propensities, 

THE SCHOOL. 
While the school cannot supplant, it may, indeed it MUST sup- 
plement the family as an organic educational agency. The educational 
inefficiency of the modern home increases the importance of the 
school because much that the family formerly did for the child must 
now be done by the school or it will not be done at all. 

FUNCTION. 

Bagley (Educative Process, page 33) defines the school as: "A 
specialized agency of formal education which aims to control In a 
measure the experience of the child during the plastic period of 
infancy." He also says (page 36) "The school is only an institution 
for providing environments, for regulating environments, for turning 
environmental forces to a definite and conscious end." 

Dewey defines it (Pedagogic Creed, page 8) as "That form of 
community life in which all those agencies are concentrated that will 
be most effective in bringing the child to share in the inherited re- 
sources of the race and to use his own powers for social ends." 

The conception common to both these definitions may be quite 
appropriately expressed by the term "Environmental Determinism." 
That environment is determinative in human development ,'s assumed 
by both; and that the school is an institution for determining environ- 
ment, is affirmed by both. 

It would be more accurate, however, to regard the school as an 
institution which functions in the INCITATION of the SELF- 
REALIZING propensities of PERSONALITY. The determined en- 

(71) 



+ 



vironment, or CURRICULUM, is merely the complex instrument by 
which this is effected. The function is primal but the instrument is 
indispensable, therefore, the problem of the school is practically the 
problem of the Curriculum. Its function and the conditions upon 
which its efficiency depend, are two -fold: 

SIMPLIFICATION and ADAPTATION. 

A correct curriculum reduces environment to embryonic form. 
Existing life is so complex that it bewilders, confuses and distracts 
the undeveloped mind. Professor Dewey well says (Pedagogic Creed, 
page 8) : "The child is either overwhelmed by the multiplicity of 
activities which are going on, so that he loses his own power of 
orderly reaction, or he is so stimulated by these various activities 
that his powers are prematurely called into play and he becomes 
either unduly specialized or else disintegrated." 

The curriculum simplifies only when it is the translation of 
existing life in terms of previous experience. The principle of apper- 
ception, therefore, prescribes that there shall be no break between 
the home and the school. The function of the school is essentially 
rooted and grounded in the function of the home, as the fountain head 
from which it flows. It simply supplements the home by perpetuating, 
elaborating and systematizing its processes in the incitation of self- 
realization. 

The school, therefore, provides the transition from the limited, 
embryonic life of the home to the larger, elaborated and complex 
life of society. Contact with the former is a problem of ADAPTA- 
TION, and with the latter, a problem of SIMPLIFICATION. That is, 
the school begins with the HOME and ends in SOCIETY. The 
curriculum is thus essentially flexible, so that it may be fitted on the 
one hand to the evolving life of the child and on the other to the 
complex life of society in which the evolved or mature man is to live. 

STIMULATION and ASSIMILATION. 
Since self-expression is the process of self-realization, education 
is a process of rather than preparing for living. The school, there- 
fore, must represent life, present life, life as real as that of the home 
or the playground. In other words, the community life which 
characterized the home must also characterize the school. Pupils 
must DO if they LEARN, they must ACT if they ASSIMILATE the 
culture transmitted to them by the process of social heredity. 

The subjects of the curriculum are but so many phases of ex- 
perience provided as formal reaction stimuli. The result of proper 
response is two-fold: 

FIRST — The evolving self follows the foot- steps of society in the 
evolution of the subject, and by the process of ASSIMILATION, 
learns or APPROPRIATES the accumulated experience of the race 
as KNOWLEDGE, or the capacity to react upon environment intel- 
ligently. 

SECOND — Formal experiences, thus effected by the stimuli of 
curriculum exercises, prove serviceable in later experiences that are 
informal. The community life of the school is, therefore, the elementary 
life of society, in which the culture of the curriculum, evolved FOR 
us by others, becomes our own as we evolve it IN and FOR ourselves. 

FAULTS. 
The schools of today — Public, Private, Elementary, Secondary, 
Colleges, Universities — must be indicted as inefficient. They fall 
short of the Ideal involved in the function just formulated. 

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THEORY, 
Their inefficiency is largely due to the prevalence of erronlous 
educational principles. Even the development and adjustment con- 
ceptions are the exception rather than the rule. The dogma of 
"Formal Discipline" still survives. Consequently the function of 
the school is regarded as preparation for life. The point-of-view is 
passive. Teachers are prone to TELL rather than TEACH because 
they regard their task as the IMPARTATION of INFORMATION, 
hence proceed to — 

"Ram it in, cram it in, 

Children's heads are hollow; 
Slam it in, jam it in, 

Still there's more to follow." 

PRACTICE. 
Mediaeval repression and conformity have, in the main, given 
place to Modern RATIONALISM. The change is merely a shift from 
one extreme to another. Written examinations, parrot recitations 
and the high grades given for tracking true to the text puts the 
premium on ROTE MEMORY and makes intellectual culture the 
standard of educational values. The result is the hot- house 
process of hurrying and the barest formalism of "book-learning," 
fraught with inefficiency in life, or so-called KNOWLEDGE, without 
SKILL. Witness the many college and university graduates who 
go down in the battle for bread. 

REFORM. 
The transformation of the schools that ARE into the schools 
that OUGHT to BE is a two -fold process of ELIMINATION and 
ELABORATION. 

NEGATIVE. 

The insidious errors which persist in Modem Pedagogy must be 
purged out — ELIMINATED, root and branch. Let us be done, once 
for all, with "Faculty Psychology," "Formal Discipline," and the 
grind of "Getting ready for life." Let those subjects which are void 
of value IN THEMSELVES be culled out from the curriculum and 
cast upon the junk- heap of discarded dogma. Let the folly of dead 
formalism and mere book-learning be banished forever. 

POSITIVE. 
The highest efficiency of the school depends ultimately upon Its 
functional perfection. This consummation, "Devoutly to be wished," 
presupposes, as its primal condition, a proper pedagogical 

PURPOSE. 

Some years ago, while waiting with a fellow- student in Baylor 
University, at a wayside junction for a belated train, the writer 
engaged him in conversation concerning the blessing of an education. 
In reply to the suggestion that it widens one's world, he said: "Well, 
I'm frank to say that I don't care anything about your widened world. 
It's the MONEY I'm after, and I know that an education helps % man 
make money." 

His utilitarianism was painful to me, and the pity of it is that it 
is the rule rather than the exception. The average parent patronizes 
the schools because he believes that an education will help his child 
"GET ON" in the world; and the average pupil, who is in school for 
a purpose, agrees with his utilitarian father. Sad to say, many of 
them are there merely because they are sent, hence, have no purpose. 

(73) 



Of course educational utilitarianism is merely the reflection of a 
utlitarian age. A spirit thus rooted and grounded in the very structure 
of society cannot be easily eradicated, but it must be stamped out 
if the highest eflaciency of the school shall be realized. The purpose 
of education is not that one may KNOW or even DO, but that he 
may BE his BEST SELF, for if he IS his BEST SELF, he will both 
KNOW and DO as he ought. The mission of the school is not 
MONEY -MAKING but MAN -MAKING, that is, the incitation of the 
SELF- REALIZING propensities of Personality. 



PROCESS. 

Since Self- Expression is the process of Self- Realization, the lines 
along which the ideal school will ultimately come to its own are: 

FIRST — The Laboratory Method, by which experience affects the 
evolution of intelligence, and thereby the expression of the SELF; 

SECOND— Not only LIFE but COMMUNITY LIFE, in which the 
Social or Self- Manifesting Propensities of Personality find adequate 
exercise; 

THIRD— Vocational Culture and Manual Training, void of over- 
specialization, and yet so comprehensive and thorough as to conserve 
self- appreciation and constitute the actual genesis of professional and 
industrial life; 

FOURTH— The freedom of INITIATIVE, provided by a flexible 
Curriculum, in which Self- Determination is incited and Self -Realiza- 
tion thereby induced ; 

FIFTH — An atmosphere so saturated with IDEALS as to stim- 
ulate the True Self, and thereby evoke the evolution of the pupil's 
personality. 

THE CHURCH. 
That the church is not only legally but essentially an educa- 
tional agency, I submit: 

FIRST — All education is, in its last analysis, religious. 

SECOND — Religion essentially functions educationally. 

THIRD — The founder of Christianity was pre-eminently a 
teacher. The ten terms applied to Jesus, in the Gospels, are every 
one pedagogical. He was comprehensively ^and characteristically 
addressed as "DIDASKALOS," with its synonyms, "RABBI," and 
Z- "RABBONI," (Teacher) sixty times; "PROPHEETEES" (Prophet), 
Y in recognition of the source of His teaching, eighteen times; "EPIS- 

TATEES" (Master), His authority as a teacher, six times; "lATROS" 
(Physician), the social phase of his teaching, four times; "SOTEER" 
(Saviour), the aim of His teaching, twice; and "KATHEEGEETEES" 
(Master- Teacher), the psychological process, once. 

The terms by which His work is described are also pedagogical. 

of the three — "KEERUSSO" (Proclaim the Good News — Preach), 

/ hence inspire by insti-uction, is used thirteen times; "THERAPEUO" 

(Heal), teach by illustration, nineteen times; "DIDASKO" (Teach), 

the verb form of the noun "DIDASKALOS," forty- nine times. 

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FOURTH — The one term by which the followers of Christ were 
designated is "MATHEETEES," translated "a DISCIPLE,'' that is 
"PUPIL or LEARNER." It complements the title "DIDASKALOS and 
the function "DIDASKO." If the followers of Jesus were His learn- 
ers. He must have been their TEACHER. "MATHEETEES" occurs 
in the New Testament 260 times; of which 230 are in the Gospels 
and 30 in the Acts. 

FIFTH — The function committed to the Church in the "Great 
Commission" (Matt. 28-19-20) is Pedagogical. Proceeding, there- 
fore, you disciple (MATHEETEUSATE) all the nations, baptizing 
them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 
teaching (DIDASKONTES) them to observe all things whatsoever I 
have commanded you." There is no room here for doubt as to the 
function to be perpetuated. The two words— "MATHEETEUSATE," 
and "DIDASKONTES" — which constitute the two phases of the per- 
petuated function are both fundamentally pedagogical. 

SIXTH — The characteristic function of the Apostles and primi- 
tive Christians confirm the pedagogical interpretation of the Great 
Commission. What they did is certainly their conception of what 
Jesus commanded them to do. "KEERUSSO," (Preach) is used as 
the designation of their work eight times in the Acts and eighteen 
times in the Epistles. "DIDASKALOI," (official teachers) are mem- 
tioned once in the Acts and six times in the Epistles. "DIDASKO," 
(Teach), occurs fifteen times in the Acts and six times in the Epistles. 

SEVENTH — The Biblical basis and Historical Background of the 
educational activities of the Church are justified by the fundamental 
principles of Philosophy. ' 

It is a PSYCHOLOGICAL neccessity. The framework for reli- 
gious feeling must be provided by instruction. To eliminate correct 
ideas from consciousness is to leave an open field for emotionalism 
or fanatacism and thus make effortful activities aimless and ineffec- 
tive. ' 

The social efficiency of the Church demands it. The teaching 
function is indispensable to the fulfillment of its mission. Stated in. 
its elementary form, this is to bring men individually and socially 
into the unity with God which Jesus enjoyed. Many things which are 
regarded by some as the mission of the Church are only correlaries 
of this proposition. For instance: The right settlement of social 
problems; the unification of society; the proclamation of the Will 
of God. Ideas interpret to us the life of Jesus; they bear His mes- 
sage through the years; they bring His mind to men. To be sure, 
ideas are not sufficient means wherewith the Church may attain its 
goal, but they are none the less an essential part of any means that 
are sufficient. If numerous, broad and generous ideas had been more 
prominent in the work of the Church, there would have been less 
dogmatism, intolerance, imitation, and fanaticism. 

Add to these considerations the serious fact that the state schools 
are, by legal enactment, shut up to so-called secular education, and 
the pedagogical imperative of the Church, as THE organic agency 
of Religious Education, becomes impelling and irresistible. The one 

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problem is not — shall the church function as a SCHOOL, but HOW 
can it attain the highest eflaeiency as such? 

The educational inefficiency of the Church is due to defective 
organization. The same young people are carrying on Bible Study 
in. their Societies and in the Sunday School, without any correlation 
either in course, method or administration. They also conduct Prayer 
Meetings, which are very ambigously related to the mid-week Prayer 
Meeting of the Church. 

Order will be restored, energies conserved, and forces strength- 
ened whenever the Church rcognizes itself as a SCHOOL; provides 
for itself an educational head (the Pastor or an Assistant) and pro- 
ceeds to organize the CHURCH SCHOOL as other schools are organ- 
ized_ 

One immediate result of such organization will be the fusing of 
the various systems of Bible Study. The societies compete with the 
Sunday School mainly because the Sunday School Curriculum is not 
scientifically graded. ' 

The Junior and Intermediate Societies exist largely for the sake 
of their direct spiritual culture. But this is also the aim of the 
Sunday School. Why then should not these Societies be organically 
merged with the corresponding departments of the Sunday School, 
meetings other than those of the Teaching Service, being held as need- 
ed. Officers could be elected and committees appointed; in fact every- 
thing that is now done by the society, as an independent organiza- 
tion, could be done fully as well by a department of the Church School. 

With later Adolescents who form the Senior Young People's So- 
ciety, the same conditions prevail. Their Bible Classes, however, 
should become a part of the main school. The organization might 
be easily correlated and yet remain intact. In later Adolescence we 
reach a stage of life in which proper education requires much in the 
way of initiative, organization and responsibility. These senior so- 
cieties are their school of practice and so must remain as a permanent 
part of our system of religious education. What they need is to be- 
come a part of the Church School, in which relation they would have 
the benefit of ultimate mature leadership exercised in a flexible way. 

A CONCRETE EXAMPLE 

Deeming the citation of a church, actually organized as a School 
of Religion, with the pedagogical principles permeating this Thesis, 
worked out in detail, the most effective expression of the author's con- 
ception of the church as an educational agency, we submit, here and 
now, the organization of the First Baptist Church of Lancaster, Texas. 

The village of Lancaster has a population of some 1200 and is 
located in the "Black Land Belt" of North Texas. The membership 
of the church numbers about 300, over half of whom live in the coun- 
try surrounding the village. While the culture of the people is above 
the average, the needs and problems are those common to such a 
community. The organization given here is not "Just on Paper,'' but 
in actual and effective operation. 

POLITY 

Be it resolved by the membership of The First Baptist Church of 
Lancaster, Texas, assembled in regular Conference, this 30th day of 
March, 1913, that v/e henceforth regard our church as a Divinely Or- 
iginated Institution, designed for the two -fold function of EVANGEL- 
IZING the lost and EDIFYING the saved, hence, as projected by "The 
Great Commission." A TRAINING SCHOOL for the CULTURE OP 
CHRISTIAN CHARACTER — membership in the church constituting 

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"perse," membership in the School — organized for the essential func- 
tions of IMPRESSION and EXPRESSION, as follows: 

A. INSTRUCTION— BIBLE SCHOOL. 

I. PRIMARY DEPARTMENT— Five Grades: 

1. Cradle Roll - - Ages 1-3 

2. Beginners — - - Ages 4-5 

3. Main Primary - - Ages 6-8 

II. JUNIOR DEPARTMENT— Four grades— Ages 9-12 

III. INTERMEDIATE DEPAHTMENT — Four Grades — Ages 

13-16 

IV. SENIOR DEPARTMENT— Pour Grades— Ages 17-20 
V ADULT DEPARTMENT— Ages 21- up. 

VI. HOME DEPARTMENT— All members of the church, not ac- 
tive in the Main School and such 
others as will enroll. 

B. PRACTICE— SOCIETIES 

I. SUNBEAM BAND— Boys and Girls— Ages 4-11 

II. JUNIOR AUXILIARY— Girls— Ages 12-16 

III. BOYS BRIGADE— Boys— Ages 9-16 

IV. B. P. Y. U.— All young People— Ages 16 -up 

V. WOMEN'S AUXILIARY— All adult women of the Church 

VI. MEN'S ALLIANCE— All adult men of the Church 

Two principles are recognized as primal in this system of organ- 
ization — FIRST: Unity must be so conserved that duplication of 
function and membership, either in the Teaching or Training Service 
of the School shall be avoided; SECOND: Members of the church 
are not to be solicited to JOIN the Bible School or the various So- 
cieties, but, by resolution of the church, to be regarded as members 
of the School, both the Teaching and Training Departments, by virtue 
of membership in the church — that is, the Bible School is merely the 
Teaching Service of the Church, and the various Societies merely 
Training Services or meetings of the membership, according to age, 
for exercise in Religious activities. The task of the working nucleus 
is the ENLISTMENT of the inactive, every one having SOME ONE 
after that one. 

FINANCIAL PLAN 

Inasmuch as the Holy Bible is the Law of Christ's Churches, and — • 

WHEREAS such passages as Mai. 3:10 "Bring ye all the tithes 
into the storehouse, that there may be meat in mine house, and prove 
me herewith, saith the Lord of Hosts, if I will not open you the 
windows of heaven, and pour you out a blessing that there shall not 
be room enough to receive it;" and 1 Cor. 16:2 "Upon the first day of 
the week let every one of you lay by him in store, as God hath pros- 
pered him;" plainly specify what is commonly called "Proportionate 
Giving" as the Bible Plan for financing the Kingdom, and — 

WHEREAS the regular, systematic payment of the tithe or such 
other proportion of income as each member shall designate, into the 
treasury of the church, each Lord's Day or upon the First Lord's Day 
of each month, as an ACT OF WORSHIP; or the definite designa- 
tion of the sum proposed for all purposes, eliminates the necessity of 
public collections and repeated special appeals — 

THEREFORE be it resolved that we. The First Baptist Church of 
Lancaster, Texas, in Annual Conference, this 4th day of January, 1914, 
hereby adopt the Bible Plan of Proportionate Giving as our Financial 

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System, outlined and incorporated in the following: 

COVENANT 

WHEREAS: The First Baptist Church of Lancaster, Texas, of 
which I am a member, did in Annual Conference, Jan. 4, 1914, adopt 
the following Financial Plan — towit — 

That there shall be one Fund, into which all money contributed 
by the membership, or others, personally or through any Auxiliary, 
for any and all purposes, incidental to the maintenance of the local 
church and the Missionary, Educational, and Benevolent Enterprises 
of the Denomination shall be paid; and out of which all current ex- 
penses of the local church, including Pastor's salary, Incidentals and 
the supplies of the various Auxiliaries, shall be paid each month, and 
the Balance PRORATED among the various Missionary, Educational 
and Benevolent Enterprises, on such percentage basis as shall be de- 
termined by the church, in Annual Conference, each year — 

THEREFORE, I, - 

realizing that I am God's Steward, and as such, holding what- 
ever money or property He has committed or shall from time 
to time commit to me, as a TRUST to be administered accord- 
ing to the principles plainly set forth in His word; hence believing 
that I ought to dedicate a definite proportion of my income to the 
sacred purpose of Religious Propaganda as it functions in the local 
work and co-operative Enterprises of Christ's churches, I cheerfully 
give, and hereby promise to pay into the Treasury of The First Bap- 
tist Church of Lancaster, Texas, not less than % (per cent) of my 

income, as best I can determine it, or in lieu of a proportion, the de- 
finite sum of $ (which is as much or more than I have 

been giving for all religious purposes, each year), to be paid 

during the year 1 9 

and each year thereafter unless otherwise specified, by written notice 
to the Treasurer. 

It is my purpose to make this offering as an act of worship, using 
therefor, the envelopes provided me for such purpose, and to add, 
from time to time such additional FREE-WILL OFFERINGS as I 
find possible by the Blessings of our Gracious Father: 

HOWEVER: It is definitely understood that this Covenant shall 
be regarded as the full measure of my obligation to Christ's Church 
and the Enterprises of His Kingdom, therefore, that I am not, so 
long as I faithfully and cheerfully meet the conditions of this Cove- 
nant, to be solicited either publicly or privately for any contribu- 
tion whatever, aside from that herein specified. 

It is also understood that all DESIGNATED funds, both of indi- 
viduals and Auxiliaries, shall be used in strict accord with the will 
of the donor. 

Signed ~ 

Date 

PRORATA 

MISSIONS 54% 

State .25, Foreign .15, Home .10, County .04 

EDUCATION 16% 

Education Board .10, Students Fund .03, Seminary .03 

BENEVOLENCES 20% 

Orphans Home .12, Sanitarium .06, Aged Ministers .02 

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MISCELLANEOU S - 10 % 

Emergencies such as Charity and Special Causes. 

BALANCE PRORATED 100% 

PROSPECTUS 

of the 

SCHOOL OF THE CHURCH. 

A. INSTRUCTION. 

The Bible School is regarded as a REAL SCHOOL. Its organiza- 
tion and methods are based on the tested principles of Pedagogy, th« 
mort vital and determinative of which is ADAPTATION. The teach- 
ers, the pupils and the curriculm are as thoroughly graded as they are 
in the Public School. 

The purpose is to meet the spiritual needs of the pupil in each 
stage of his development. These, broadly stated, are: 

(1) To know God as He has revealed Himself to us in nature, in 
the heart of man, in the Holy Scriptures, and in Christ; 

(2) To exercise toward God the Father, and His Son, Jesus 
Christ, our Lord and Savior, trust, obedience and worship; 

(3) To know and do our duty to others; and 

(4) To know and do our duty to ourselves. 

The efficiency of our school is attested by the A-1 Standard of 
Excellence awarded us by the Sunday School Board of The Southern 
Baptist Convention, April 18, 1913, at which time the TEN conditions 
were susscessfully met by our school. The ten marks of excellence 
are as follows: 

STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. 

(1) School in session every month in the year; 

(2) Baptist Literature, with special instruction in Temperance 
Missions and Giving; 

(3) The School regarded as the Teaching Service of the Church 
hence, under the control of the Church and contributing to all the 
Etenominational Enterprises fostered by the church; 

(4) Bibles used above the Primary Department; 

(5) Regular Teachers' Meeting; 

(6) Not less than FIFTY PER CENT of the Teachers and Offi- 
cers holding "King's Teacher Diploma;" 

(7) Seventy- five per cent of the resident members enrolled in 
the School; 

(8) Separate rooms for Primary and Junior Departments ,with 
rooms for not less than Fifty per cent of the remaining classes; 

(9) School Graded — Primary (0-8); Junior (9-12); Intermediate 
(13-16); Senior (17-20); Adult (21-up); Normal Training Class; At 
least one Organized Class for men and women each; Graded and 
Supplemental Lessons; 

(10) Evangelism emphasized by special appeals to the lost and 
eilort made to bring them to Christ; The usual special days observed, 
including Promotion Day, Rally Day, Mothers' Day, Fathers' Day, 
Bible Day, Missionary Day, Temperance Day, Home Department Day, 
Christmas Service (White Gifts), and Annual Picnic. 

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1. PRIMARY DEPARTMENT. 
1, Cradle Roll— Ages— Birth— -3. 

The PURPOSE of the Cradle Roll is to provide a vital connecting 
link between the church and the home, by bringing the babe as soon 
as born, under the influence of the church, and by deepening the sense 
of responsibility in parents for the religious welfare of their children. 

THE PLAN is to enroll the names of every babe that is born into 
the homes of the community, not connected in some way with some 
other church. Having secured the permission of the parents, the 
name of the infant is placed upon a large ROLL in the Primary Room, 
and a beautifully embossed certificate of membership properly filled 
out and given to the little one as a life long souvenir. Occasional 
visits to the home are made by the Cradle Roll Superintendent or her 
assistants; the babe is rememberd with an attractive card on each 
recurring birthday, and at the end of three years, formal promotion 
into the Beginners section of the Main Primary Department takes 
place. 

2. BEGINNERS; Ages 4-5; Grades l-ll. 

The child is primarily a DOER rather than a thinker. He lives 
in the land of the CONCRETE rather than the abstract. He does 
right and so feels right beiore ne can thmk rignt. The religious 
culture of Beginners, therefore, consists in being kind to them; ini- 
tiating them gradually into the customs of religion; inducing ihem to 
do the unselfish deed, of which they might not have thought; being 
consistent with rewards and penalties; securing regular obedience; 
directing the imagination to pleasureable objects only; exercising 
patience in meeting their wants; permitting only good things; for- 
bidding oniy evil things; providing proper association with other chil- 
dren; and so drilling them in the various forms of worship such as 
prayer and song, as to saturate the subconscious self with religious 
impulses and plant the seeds of religious habits. 

The AIM of the course is to lead the little child to GOD, through 
Christ, by helping him: (1) To know God the heavenly Father, whe 
loves him, provides lor him, and protects him; (ii) To know Jesus, 
the Son of God, who became a little child, who went about 
doing good, and who is the friend and Savior of little 
children; (3) To know about the Heavenly Home; (4) To distin- 
guish between right and wrong; (5) To show one's love for God by 
working with Him for others. 

The MATERIAL consists of passages from the Bible which con- 
tain truths suited to the need of the child in this stage of his develop- 
ment; and brief selected verses for the child, which, on account of 
their frequent use by the teacher, and their relation to the thought of 
the lesson, easily become the permanent possession of the child. 

GRADE I; Age 4; First Year Beginners. 
COURSE — God's Fatherly Care; Thanksgiving for Care; Thanks- 
giving for God's Best Gift; Love shown through Care; The Loving 
Care of Jesus; Duty of Loving Obedience; Love shown by Prayer and 
Praise; Love Shown by Kindness — to those in the Family Circle, To 
those outside the Family Circle. 

GRADE II; Age 5; Second Year Beginners. 
COURSE — Our Heavenly Father's Protection; approached through 
Parental Protection; Thanksgiving for Protection; Thanksgiving for 
God's Best Gift; God Helping to Protect; Jesus the Helper and Sav- 
iour; Jesus Teaching to Pray; God's Gift of Sunshine and Rain; Jesus 

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'leaching How to Help; Children Helping; Friendly Helpers, Individ- 
ual Help, Interchange of Help, Cooperation in Helping. 

3. MAIN PRIMARY; Ages 6-8; Grades lll-V. 

The child now passes beyond the control of mere unreflective im- 
pulse. The empirical self begins to feel the restraining hand of the 
True Self upon it. The dim dawn of self- consciousness is reached. 
Care must be exercised that natural consequences occasion the discov- 
ery that obedience brings happiness and disobedience brings pain. 
Imagination is thoroughly alive and stories are wanted over and over 
again. Pictures are used much. This is the time to store the mind 
with images that shall present life in its truth and become the frame- 
work for future service. The dramatics of imagination and imitation 
are strong, hence, religious training during this period must make 
much of the concrete in correct religious example; the suggestion of 
deeds of religious service; the formation of correct habits; a just law; 
a gentle yet firm authority ; the implanting of a few fundamental prin- 
ciples of conduct, such as "The Golden Rule," the virtues that function 
in trustworthiness. 

The AIM of the course is to lead the child to know God, the Heav- 
enly Father, and to awaken within him a desire to live as God's Child. 

The MATERIAL consists of those passages from God's Word best 
suited to the age and needs of the child, with selected memory verses, 
the meaning of which is to be later developed. 

GRADE III; Age 6; First Year Primary. 
COURSE — God the Creator; God the Father; God's Care calling 
forth Love and Thanks; Love Shown by Giving; God Rescuing from 
Sin; God the Giver of Life on Earth and in Heaven; God Speaking to 
a Child; Speaking to God in Prayer; Worshiping God; Pleasing God 
by Right Doing; God's Loving Kindness. 

GRADE IV; Age 7; Second Year Primary. 

The AIM of this year is to build upon the work of the previous 
year by showing (1) Ways in which children may express their love, 
trust and obedience; (2) Jesus the Savior in His love and Work for 
Men; and, (3) How helpers of Jesus and others learn to do God's Will. 

COURSE— The Best Use of God's Book, God's House, God's Day; 
Prayer and Praise; Listening to God's Messengers; The Childhood of 
Jesus; Jesus the Helper; Jesus Choosing Helpers; Jesus Loving and 
Receiving Love; Jesus Using His Power; The Helpers of Jesus Car- 
rying on His Work; Learning to Do God's Will; The Right Use of 
God's Gifts ; All Creation Showing Forth the Glory of God. 

GRADE V; Age 8; Third Year Primary. 

The AIM of this year is to build upon the work of the two previ- 
ous years in the department by telling: (1) About People Who Choose 
to do God's Will; (2) How Jesus, by His Life and Words, Death 
and Resurrection Revealed the Father's Love and Will for Us; (3) 
Such stories as will make a strong appeal to the child and arouse 
within him a desire to choose and to do that which God requires of 
him. 

COURSE— Readiness to Do God's Will; The Coming of God's Son 
to Do His Will; Jesus Revealing the Father's Love; Two Messengers 
of Jesus Doing God's Will; Choosing the Right. 

II. JUNIOR DEPARTMENT. 
Ages 9-12; Grades VI-IX. 
The ages of this department cover what is known as "Later 

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Childhood." Self- Consciousness begins to deepen. The Social Side of 
Personality is strong. Individual expression gradually gives place to 
the "Gang Impulse," which functions in games and Team Play. The 
constructive instinct is strong. The inner consciousness of individ- 
uality easily manifests itself. The sexes must now be separated. The 
fellowship feeling makes a bid for confidence. It is the ripe age for 
parents to become the intimate partner of the child. The sense of 
justice is keen and must be respected if discipline be maintained 
Moral intuitions for the first time come clearly to consciousness. 

The key to the period is DO. The whole organism tingles with 
activity. The one problem of the teacher is to direct the spontaneous 
activities of the restless boys and girls. Self- sensitiveness, social im- 
pulses and Moral intuitions are the guiding characteristics of the 
period. 

The AIM of the courses for this Department is: (1) To awaken 
an interest in the Bible, and love for it; to deepen the impulse to 
choose and to do right; (2) To present the ideal of Moral Hero'sm; 
to reveal the power and majesty of Jesus Christ, and to show His fol- 
lowers going forth in His strength to do His work; (3) To deepen the 
sense of responsibility for full and complete choice of right; to show 
the consequences of right and wrong choices; to strengthen the love 
of right and hatred of wrong; (4) To present Jesus as our Saviour 
and example; to lead the pupil to appreciate his opportunities for 
service and to give him a vision of what it means to be a Christian. 

GRADE VI; Age 9; First Year Junior. 
COURSE — Stories of the Beginners; Three Patriarchs; Joseph; 
Moses and his Enemies; Jesus; The Journeys of Moses. 
GRADE VII; Age 10; Second Year Junior. 
COURSE — The Conquest of Caanan; Opening of the New Testa- 
ment; Incidents in the Life of Jesus; Early Followers of Jesus r 
Stories of the Judges. 

GRADE VIM; Age 11; Third Year Junior. 
COURSE — The First Three Kings of Israel; The Divided King- 
dom; Responsibility for one's Self, Neighbor, and Country; The Exile- 
and Return; Introduction to New Testament Times. 

GRADES IX; Age 12; Fourth Year Junior. 

COURSE — The Gospel of Mark; Studies in the Acts; Winning 
others for God; The Bible the Word of God. 



III. INTERMEDIATE DEPARTMENT. 



Ages 13-16; Grades IX-XII; "Grammar School." ' 

The years from thirteen to seventeen are the early Adolescent 
Period. Like the Periods preceeding, this has its own characteristics 
and problems. The Adolescent grows rapidly. He is no longer a 
child. He is not yet a man. But by the close of the period he is ap- 
proaching manhood in stature. He is thrust, by his own development, 
into a new world. It is one with which he is unfamiliar and which he 
must learn largely by experience. 

This is the period of sublime ideals. The Adolescent indulges in 
Day Dreams; and he gets much pleasure out of the perfection created 
by his own fancy. He idolizes the really genuine in persons. He wants 
the best. If his mind turns to good things, he will be content only 
with an ideal that is perfect. 

There is great danger in this period. Life, in new phases, is 

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opening up to tbe Adolescent. Vitality is strong. Greater freedom is 
allowed now. Bad companions may give the wrong turn in thought 
and action. And such influence is difficult to counteract. The younger 
Adolescent seems fickle. He changes his interests often. He begins 
task after task, only to leave them half finished. The very excess of 
his vitality leads him to something new all the time. It also prepares 
the way for the greatest temptations. In his fullness of animal life, the 
Adolescent responds to temptations that promise the exercise of his 
power. 

The earlier Adolescent period is also one of great opportunity for 
the Christian worker To very many persons there comes decided re- 
ligious awakenings at about twelve years or thirteen years of aga 
This is the real opportunity for leading to genuine conversion or the 
birth of the True Self, by Faith in Christ. The largest number of 
professions con-es in the sixteenth year; and it is likely that the re- 
ligious impressions of many that profess then come two or three 
years earlier. After Twenty, the number of professions rapidly de- 
creases. God throws open the door to the Intermediate teacher, who 
should be a spiritual adviser to each member of the class. 

We are dealing here with boys and girls who are very self-con- 
scious; who are very self-sufficient. Life is expanding, a new sense of 
power is dawning, intellectual talents are awakening, reasoning pow- 
ers are asserting themselves, social instincts are maturing, altruistic 
feelings are responsive and the right and wrong of things will appeal 
far more than at any other time in life thus far. 

This is in the very midst of the "Fool Hill" era of youth, when 
the whole being is changed, when the physical organism is swept by 
every change of an awakening selfhood when the mind is no longer 
willing to accept things because some one else does, but demands rea- 
sons and proof; when the enquiring mind asks the WHY and the 
WHAT for itself; when a new sense of what the world IS and OUGHT 
TO BE has come and with it all a great desire to take part nobly in 
the real things of life. 

At this time comes as great loneliness as at any period of life. 
Younger friends do not know or understand, older people have forgot- 
ten and do not sympathize; friends of the same age are experiencing 
the same strange strain and stress and tumult and peril. 

This is a time, also, of rebellion against authority of any kind. 
The girl thinks her mother an "Old Fogy" and the boy calls his father 
||The Old Man." The consciousness of power and the desire to appear 
"BIG" will lead to wrong associations, to baleful habits, to reckless 
statements, to egoistic assertions and to distressing doubts. These 
boys and girls now like to be called "young men and young women." 
They are facing toward manhood and womanhood and are no longer 
dependent wards of society. They are living parts of the world and 
its work, and they are not interested if not permitted to be a part of 
the organization and working force. 

In view of these characteristics, each class in this department is 
ORGANIZED so that the "Gang Impulse" may be utilized to the best 
advantage. Team work thus becomes a powerful ally in not only 
holding the boys and girls in the Bible School at the very time when 
they are most prone to drift away but in driving home the lessons 
taught them. 

Each class has a Name, Colors, Motto, Stated Aim, Bible Verse 
and Class Song, thus providing a compact and yet flexible organiza- 
tion suited to the Period. 

GRADE X; Age 13; First Year Intermediate. 
The AIM of this year is to inspire noble living in the pupils and 

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to show that the Old Testament History prepared for Christ. 

COURSE — The Bible and its teachings concerning God, Jesus, Sin^ 
Salvation and Service; Biographical Studies in the Old Testament. 

GRADE XI; Age 14; Second Year Intermediate. 

The AIM of this year is to influence all the youths, not having 
previously done so, to definitely accept Christ and confess him as a 
personal Saviour; To lead to the practical recognition of the duty and 
responsibility of personal Christian living, and outward expression of 
the new life by organizing the conflicting impulses so as to develop 
habits of Christian service. 

COURSE — The Great Commission and Christian Missions; The 
Companions of Jesus; Early Christian Leaders; Salvation and Service. 
GRADE XII; Age 15; Third Year intermediate. 

The AIM of this year is to KNOW CHRIST historically, experi- 
mentally and in service. 

COURSE— The Life of Christ; The Teachings of Jesus; The Mis- 
sionary Witness 

GRADE XIII; Age 16; Fourth Year Intermediate. 

The AIM of this year is to fix the pupils in habits of Christian 
Service. 

COURSE — What it means to be a Christian; Special problems of 
Christian Living; The Christian and the Church; The Word of God in 
Life. 

IV. SENIOR DEPARTIVIENT. 
Ages 17-20; "High School." 

The psychological background of this Department is the phe- 
nomena of both Middle and Later Adolescence. The first two years 
are supremely sentimental. Sexual attractions are strong. Romance 
and Heroism abound. Self- consciousness takes on a decided social 
coloring. Strong emotionalism merges the self-assertion of early 
adolescence with the social propensities of the group. This is the 
climax of the conversion curve. Conversion is certainly a definite 
spiritual experience but it is also a normal function of Middle Adoles- 
cence and if properly prepared and environed practically all young 
people would be converted during this period,if not before. 

Later adolescence is characterized by the tendency to reflect and 
think for one's self. This is the age of doubt and the question of all 
questions is WHY? The teacher must be able to cope with that ques- 
tion too, if he would hold his grip on the unfolding personality. 

The Grades of this Department are merged in the great Organized 
Classes : 

BARACA. 

Independent Graded Courses of study are used, the AIM being to 
provide the solution of the problems that characterize this period in 
the life of young men. A favorite course is "The Social Gospel," by 
Professor Shailer Matthews, in connection with which much original 
work is done in "The Ethics of Jesus." 

PHILATHEA. 

Independent Graded Courses as with the Baracas, the AIM being 
the same. "The Life of Christ," by Dr. Wallace, has been found a fine 
back- ground for broad work in "The Teachings of Jesus." 

V. ADULT DEPARTMENT. 
Ages 21 -up; "Graduate School." 

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Mature manhood and womanhood is now reached. The Bible is 
the Text Book, with the Uniform Lesson Quarterly and Independent 
Courses, at the option of the classes, as the guide. The Classes are 
grouped and graded according to natural affinities. 

An annual BIBLE INSTITUTE, covering one week during the 
Spring, is regarded as a regular part of the work in the Adult De- 
partment of the School. The strongest Faculty available is secured 
for daily lectures in Missions, Bible Doctrines and Church Polity. 

VI. HOME DEPORTMENT. 

All members of the Church, not active in the Main School, are re- 
garded as IN the Home Department. They, with such others as will 
enroll with them, are grouped by communities and committed to VIS- 
ITORS, who rank as Teachers of the School. Under the general over- 
sight of the Home Department Superintendent, each home is visited 
at least once each quarter, when literature is left, the report of work 
done recorded by the visitor and the offering taken up. This depart- 
ment is a real part of the School and proves invaluable in reaching 
those who would otherwise be lost to the influences of the church. 

B. PRACTICE. 

I. SUNBEAM BAND. 

Boys and Girls; Ages 4-11. 

The Band parallels the Primary Department of the Bible School in 

the main but takes in the younger Juniors who work better with them 

than with the Junior Societies. 

The AIM is first of all the EXERCISE of the religious propensi- 
ties. Expression is here provided for the Impressions of the Teaching 
Services. The process is ACTIVE rather than Passive. The END in 
every exercise is the formation of those habits that will function in 
religious service, later in life and thus constitute the framework of 
aclivities in the Church and Society. Public programs are rendered 
in connection with the Week of Prayer and at other times. 

II. JUNIOR AUXILIARY. 
Girls; Ages 11-15. 
The Older Junior and Younger Intermediate Girls compose this. 
Society. The ages are not held to the exact limits of the Teaching 
departments because the number in the Lancaster Church and Com- 
munity does not justify it. In a larger church it would be possible to 
conform to the age set by the Teaching Department. 

The general AIM in this society is the intellectual, physical. Moral 
and Religious development of the girls. The work is closely affiliated 
with that of the Young Women and the Women's Auxiliary. One 
meeting each month is devoted to: Missions; Social and Domestic 
Sciences; Benevolence and Physical Culture; Devotional and Social 
Service. 

Aside from the regular routine, Public Programs are rendered 
occasionally and some work is done in elementary athletics. 

III. BOYS' BRIDAGE. 
Boys; Ages 9-15. 
The organization is distinctly Military in form, following the U. S 
Army regulations. It is national in scope, -with headquarters at Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 

The OBJECT is the advancement of Christ's Kingdom among 
boys, through the promotion of habits of obedience, reverence, disci- 
pline, self-respect and all that tends to real manliness. The work 

(85) 



consists in Christian Culture through Bible, Literary, Missionary, and 
Patriotic Studies; Military Drill and Athletics. 

The coinpaDy takes an occasional "Hike" across the country and 
once each Summer spends ten days in Military Camp. The equipment 
consists of regulation uniforms and Springfield Rifles. The Pastor 
gives much time to the work of these boys. 

IV. BAPTISTS YOUNG PEOPLE'S UNION. 
All Young People 16-Up. 
The Young People's Union is the supplement of the Organized 
Classes of the Senior Department. 

The AIM is the formation of habits that will function in religious 
service and the life of the church. Bible Study is subordinated to 
active devotional exercises, prayer, public discussion and testimony. 
Social service is also stressed. The B. Y. P. U. Quarterly is used as 
a guide but spontaneous expression is sought at all times. 

CONSTITUTION. 

I. The NAME of this AUXILIARY shall be The Baptist Young 
People's Union of the First Baptist Church of Lancaster, Texas. 

II. The MEMBERSHIP may consist of two classes — active and 
Associate : 

All the young people, above the age of sixteen, who are now 
members or shall hereafter become members of the First Baptist 
Church of Lancaster, Texas, shall by reason of their membership in the 
church, be organically active members of the Baptist Young People's 
Union. 

All others expressing a desire to participate in the work of the 
Union shall be enrolled as Associate Members and be entitled to all 
the privileges of the Active Members except voting and holding office. 

III. The Pastor and President are ex-offlio members of all 
Committees and their approval should accompany the plans and rec- 
ommendations made by the committees: 

The Committees and their duties are as follows: 

MEMBERSHIP — To bring in new members and introduce them; 
to encourage attendance at all meetings and to interest all the young 
people of the church in the work of the Union. 

DEVOTIONAL — To arrange, in connection with the Pastor, and 
President for all Prayer Meetings, to appoint a leader for each service 
and seek in every way to promote the interest of the meetings. 

SOCIAL — To call upon and welcome strangers; to provide for 
social evenings, and stimulate the social life of the young people. 

TEMPERANCE] — To promote the Temperance spirit in the mem- 
bership. 

IV. THE OFFICERS shall be President, Vice President, Secre- 
tary, Coresponding Secretary- Treasurer, and they shall be elected by 
the Union annually subject to the Approval of the church. 

V. This Constitution may be amended at any regrular business 
meeting by a majority vote, notice in writing having been given at a 
previous meeting to that effect. 

V. WOMEN'S AUXILIARY. 

All Adult Women of the Church. 

CONSTITUTION. 

Preamble. 

WHEREAS the General Polity of The First Baptist Church of 

(86) 



Lancaster, Texas, adopted in regular Conference, March 30, 1913, 
specifies that the church shall be regarded as a "TRAINING SCHOOL" 
for the culture of Christian Character — membership in the Church- 
constituting, "per se," membership in the School — organized for the 
essential functions of IMPRESSION and EXPRESSION: 

THEREFORE, we. The Women's Auxiliary of The First Baptist 
Church of Lancaster, Texas, do, this 12th day of January, 1914, adopt 
the following Constitution: 

ARTICLE I. 
Name. 

The name of this Organization shall be The Women's Auxiliary 
of The First Baptist Church of Lancaster, Texas. 

ARTICLE II. 
Officers. 
The OflBcers of the Auxiliary shall be a President, two Vice-Presi- 
dents, a Recording Secretary and a Coresponding Secretary- Treas- 
urer. These officers, together with the Presidents of the Neighbor- 
hood and Young Women's Auxiliaries, shall constitute the Elxecutive 
Committee, five of whom shall constitute a quorum. This Executive 
Committee shall hold its meetings at such time and place as it may 
deem best. The duties of all officers connected in any way with the 
organization shall be such as usually obtain in such offices. 

ARTICLE III. 
Place of Meeting. 
The Women's Auxiliary shall have as its meeting place the Meet- 
ing House of the First Baptist Church of Lancaster , Texas. 

ARTICLE IV. 
Time of Meeting. 
The Women's Auxiliary shall meet the Fourth Monday afternoon 
in each month, which day shall be designated "Church day." 

ARTICLE V. 
Membership. 

Every woman who is now a member of the First Baptist Chxirch 
of Lancaster, and every one who shall hereafter become a member, 
shall, by reason of her membership in the church, be organically a 
member of the Women's Auxiliary. 

The Young Women's Auxiliary shall be composed of the unmar- 
ried young women of the church, over Fifteen years of age. 

ARTICLE VI. 
Work. 

It shall be the work of the Women's Auxiliary to further every 
interest of the Church and Denomination, in cooperation with the 
B. W. M. W. of Texas and the W. M. U. of the Southern Baptist Con- 
vention, and its lines of activity and methods of work shall at all 
times be subject to the approval of the church. 

ARTICLE VII. 
Neighborhood and Young Women's Auxiliaries. 
Each Neighborhood Auxiliary and the Young Women's Auxiliary 
shall: 

(1) Have as its officers a President, a Vice-President, a Secre- 

(87) 



fary and a Treasurer. 

(2) Work in accord with the plans formulated, from time to 
time, by the Executive Committee; 

(3) Make a written monthly report to the Women's Auxiliary on 
"Church Day" of all work done; 

(4) Meet at such time and place as shall be determined by each 
respective Auxiliary. 

ARTICLE Vm. 
Election of Officers. 

The election of officers shall occur in October of each year, at a 
regular meeting of the Women's Auxiliary, such officers being subject 
to the approval of the Church. 

ARTICLE IX. 
Amendments. 

This Constitution may be amended, by a vote of two- thirds of the 
members present, said amendment having been submitted in writing, 
one month previous to the action thereon. 

There are four Neighborhood Auxiliaries, with an average enroll- 
ment of 30, the division being made on the basis of streets running 
out of the town in country roads. 

The Neighborhood meetings are held, from home to home, each 
Monday afternoon, except the fourth when all meet together at the 
church. The First Monday is Missionary Day; the Second Devotional 
and Denominational; the Third Social and Benevolent. 

The Young Women meet each Tuesday Evening, from home to 
home, devoting one meeting to Devotional Bible Study; one to Stere- 
opticon Travelogue Studies; one to Social and Literary Exercises and 
the other to Missions. 

VI. MEN'S ALLIANCE. 
All Adult Men of the Church. 

The AIM is the enlistment of all the men in the general life of 
the church and the Laymen's Missionary Movement of the State and 
the Southern Baptist Convention. Each fourth Wednesday evening 
is given to the Laymen's Committee for the regular monthly meeting 
of the Alliance, which, at the option of the Committee, is devoted to 
an informal devotional service, a set program, or an address by the 
best speaker available. Once each year the Alliance gathers about the 
Banquet Board for mutual fellowship. It also fosters an annual Lay- 
men's Rally, and occasionally has full charge of the Sunday Services. 

A FINAL WORD. 

Since the Vocation and the State are purely informal educational 
agencies, we may pass them by and come at once to the conclusions 
of the whole man- making matter. 

Supreme Self- Realization is grounded in the SYNTHESIS of the 
HOME, the SCHOOL, and the CHURCH. The highest efficiency of 
each depends upon its correct correlation with and proper coopera- 
tion from the the other two. Given perfect homes, perfect schools, 
and perfect churches, functioning in the merged incitation of self- 
realizing propensities, and the day will have dawned when LIFE, 
with all its complex relations, will be PERSONALIZED and Humanity 
thereby PERFECTED. 

(88) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

The following authorities were consulted and, in the main, criti- 
cally studied in the production of this Thesis. 

PSYCHOLOGY. 
Inge, "Faith and Its Psychology" 1910. 
Hitchcock, '-THE PSYCHOLOGY OF JESUS" 1907. 
Sidis, "The Psychology of Suggestion" 1897. 
Dewey, "Psychology" (Third Edition). 
Harris, "Psychologic Foundations of Education" 1898. 
Judd, "Genetic Psychology for Teachers" 1903. 
Royce, "Outlines of Psychology" 1903. 
Kirkpatrick, "Genetic Psychology" 1909. 

Sinclair and Tracy, "Introductory Educational Psychology" 1909. 
Thorndike, "Educational Psychology" 1910. 

James, "THE VARIETIES OF RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE" 1902. 
Fletcher, "The Psychology of the New Testament." 
Steven, "THE PSYCHOLOY OF THE CHRISTIAN SOUL" 1911. 
Stout, "Manual of Psychology" 1899. 
Gustav Le Bon, "The Crowd" 1896. 
Ross, "Social Psychology" 1908. 
James, "PSYCHOLOGY," 

Baldwin. "THE STORY OF THE MIND" 1898. 

Warner, "THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THE CHRISTIAN LIFE" 1910. 
Dewey, "How We Think" 1909. 
McDougal, "SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY" 1912. 
Judd, "Psychology" 1907. 
Angell, "PSYCHOLOGY" (4th Edition) 1908. 

PHILOSOPHY. 

Eucken (Hough and Gibson), "THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN 
LIFE" 1909. 

Hegel (Haldane), "HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY" (Vol. Mil), 

Fullerton, "The Philosophy of Spinoza" 1894. 

Sneath, "The Philosophy of Reid" 1892. 

Torrey, "The Philosophy of Descartes." 

Fairbairn, "THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIG- 
ION" 1902. 

Sidgwick, "Philosophy, Its Scope and Relations." 

Paulsen (Thilly), "INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY" 1892. 

Zeller, "Greek Philosophy" 1883. 

Bowen, "Hamilton's Metaphysics." 

Eucken (Gibson), "THE MEANING AND VALUE OF LIFE" 1910. 

IjOtze, "Mic^-ocosmus" (4th Edition). 

Rashdall, "Philosophy and Religion" 1909. 

Alexander, "Problems of Philosophy" 1886. 

Fichte, "The Vocation of Man" 1910. 

Hegel (Sibree), "PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY" 1857. 

Lotze, "PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION." 

Home, "Free Will and Human Responsibility" 1912. 

Royce, "Studies in Good and Evil" 1898. 

Home, "THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION" 1903. 

Eucken (Jones), "The Truth of Religion" 1911. 
PEDAGOGY. 

King, "Personal and Ideal Elements in Education" 1904. 

Ruediger, "THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION" 1909. 

James. "TALKS TO TEACHERS" 1899. 

Bagley, "THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS" 1905. 

Gregory, "THE SEVEN LAWS OF TEACHING" 1886. 

Home, "PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION" 1906' 

Butler, "THE MEANING OF EDUCATION" 1898. 

(89) 



King, "Social Aspects of Education" 1911. 

Thorndike, "Principles of Teaching" 1905. 

Spencer, "Education." 

Hinsdale, "Teaching The Language Arts" 1895. 

Trumbull, "Teaching and Teachers" 1884. 

Brumbaugh, "The Making of a Teacher" 1905. 

Mark, "The Pedagogics of Preaching" 1911. 

Dewey, "MY PEDAGOGIC CREED." 

Fitch, "Educational Aims." 

Compayre (Payne), "Psychology applied to Education." 

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 

Smith, "Religious Education" 1908. 

Beardslee, "Teacher Training with the Master Teacher" 1903. 

Williams, "The Function of Teaching in Christianity" 1912. 

Haslett, "Pedagogical Bible School" 1903. 

Coe, "EDUCATION IN RELIGION AND MORALS" 1904. 

Kent, "The Great Teachers of Judaism and Christianity" 1910. 

Ramsay, "The Education of Christ" 1902. 

McKinney, "Practical Pedagogy in the Sunday School" 1911. 

McGee, "Jesus the World Teacher" 1907. 

Bishop, "Jesus the Worker" 1910. 

Hinsdale, "JESUS AS A TEACHER" 1895. 

Beauchamp, "The Graded Sunday School" 1910. 

Pease, "'An Outline of a Bible School Curriculm" 1904. 

McKinney, "The Pastor and Teacher Training" 1905. 

Coe, "The Spiritual Life" 1900. 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 

West, "Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools" 18S2. 
Hughs, "Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits." 
Compayre, "Abelard and the Origin and Early History of Unversl- 

ties." 
Bowen, "Froebel" 1892. 

Compayre (Payne), "HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY.' 
Monroe, "TEXT BOOK IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION" 

1905. 
Davidson, "HISTORY OF EDUCATION" 1900. 
Laurie, "HISTORICAL SURVEY OF PRE-CHRISTIAN EDUCA- 

TION" 1900. 
Davies and Vaughan, "Republic of Plato." 

ETHICS. 

Seth, "ETHICAL PRINCIPLES" 1902. 

Baldwin, "Social and Ethical Interpretations" (4th Edition). 

Paulsen (Thilly), "A System of Ethics" (2nd Edition) 1898. 

Green, "Prolongomena to Ethics" (2nd Edition). 

Thilly, "Introduction to Ethics" 1912. 

Dewey, "Ethical Principles Underlying Education" 1897. 

Sisson, "The Essentials of Character" 1910. 

CHILD STUDY. 
Harrison, "A Study of Child Nature" 1890. 
Kirkpatrick, "FUNDAMENTALS OF CHILD STUDY" 1903. 
Kirkpatrick, "The Individual in the Making" 1911. 

THEISM. 

Mabie, "The Meaning and Message of the Cross" 1906. 
Mabie, "The Divine Reason of the Cross" 1911. 
Mullins, "Why is Christianity True" 1905. 

(90) 



i'lint, "Theism" (7th Edition) 1889. 

Strong, "CHRIST IN CREATION AND ETHICAL MONISM" 1899. 

Harris, "THE PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS OF THEISM" 1883. 

Bruce, "Apologetics" 1892. 

Bowne, "THEISM" 1902. 

Orr, "The Christian View of God and the World" 1893. 

Fairbairn, "The Place of Christ in Modern Theology" 1911. 

PERSONALITY. 
Barrows, "The Personality of Jesus" 1906. 
Bowne, "PERSONALISM" 1908. 
Conover, "Personality in Education" 1908. 
lUingworth, "PERSONALITY HUMAN AND DIVINE" 1894. 
Randall, "THE CULTURE OF PERSONALITY" 1912. •- 
Jordan, "The Kingship of Self Control" 1898. 
Mark, "THE UNFOLDING OF PERSONALITY" (2nd Edition) 

1912. 
Moberly, "Atonement and Personality" 1901. 
Myers, "Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death" 

1906. 
Newton, "The Problem of Personality." 

Buckham, "PERSONALITY AND THE CHRISTIAN IDEAL" 1909. 
Temple, "THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY" 1911. 
Bruce, "The Riddle of Personality" 1907. 
Buckham, "THE ORIGIN AND PATHWAY OF PERSONALITY" 

(The Interpreter). 



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